The road transport sector, dominated by internal combustion engines, accounts for as high as 23% of annual carbon emissions and is considered the major area where urgent carbon reduction strategies are required. Natural gas is considered one of the intermediate fuels to reduce carbon emissions before net carbon neutral solutions can be achieved. Methane (CH4), a major constituent of natural gas, has the highest hydrogen-to-carbon ratio among the naturally occurring hydrocarbons, and the CO2 emission from natural gas combustion is around 25% less than diesel combustion. Lean combustion shows promises for improved engine efficiency, thereby reducing carbon emissions for a given required power output. However, igniting lean natural gas mixtures requires high ignition energy, beyond the capability of spark ig nition. The pre-chamber combustion (PCC) concept can provide the required ignition energy with relatively simple components. While most pre-chamber designs found in the literature are bulky and require extensive cylinder head modifications or complete engine redesign, the narrow-throat pre-chamber design can readily fit the diesel injector pockets of most heavy-duty engines without the need for substantial hardware modifications. The unique pre-chamber design is significantly different from the contemporary pre-chamber geometries, and its engine combustion phenomena and operating characteristics are largely unknown. This thesis work investigates the effect of important pre-chamber dimensions, such as the volume, nozzle hole diameter, and throat diameter, on the engine operating characteristics and emission trends. The experiments focus on the lean operation with excess air ratios (λ) exceeding 1.6, which can be achieved by auxiliary fuel injection into the pre-chamber. The air-fuel mixture formation process inside the pre-chamber is also investigated by employing 1-D and 3-D CFD simulations, where the engine experiments provided the boundary conditions. From the simulation results, a correlation between the injected and the trapped fuel in the pre-chamber is proposed by theoretical scavenging models to estimate the air-fuel ratio in the pre-chamber with high accuracy. Although the studies largely rely on thermodynamic engine experiments, the 1-D engine simulation implements the engine studies in estimating the mixture composition and heat transfer losses from the engine.

<p dir="ltr">Addressing the pressing need for reduced carbon emissions, Turbulent Jet Ignition (TJI) emerges as a promising technology for ultra-lean combustion, offering enhanced thermal efficiencies and minimized cyclic variability in spark-ignited engines. To facilitate rapid testing and integration of this technology, a robust computational modeling framework is crucial. This study delves into the predictive capabilities of computational models for main-chamber ignition and premixed flame propagation using a single-cycle TJI rig measured by Biswas et al. (Applied Thermal Engineering, volume 106, 2016). Employing an open-source compressible flow simulation solver with Large Eddy Simulation (LES) for turbulence modeling, the investigation integrates the conventional Laminar Finite Rate Chemistry (LFRC) model alongside the transported Probability Density Method (PDF) for turbulence-chemistry interaction. A fully-consistent Eulerian Monte-Carlo Fields (EMCF) method is utilized to approximate the transported PDF, while Interaction by Exchange with Mean is employed to close micro-mixing terms in stochastic differential equations. A reduced chemical reaction mechanism with 21 species and 84 reactions (DRM-19) is used for solving chemical kinetics, and a double Gaussian energy deposition model is used to approximate the spark ignition in the pre-chamber. An unstructured O-grid mesh with 0.3 million cells in the pre-chamber and 1 million cells in the main chamber is employed. Results are divided into two phases: pre-chamber initialization and full TJI simulations. Validation of the predicted pre-chamber flame propagation and the lean ignition in the main-chamber is carried out by using available experimental data. Under quiescent conditions, both the LFRC and transported PDF methods largely underestimate the flame speed and subsequent pressure growth in the pre-chamber. A linear momentum forcing technique is applied to investigate the impact of initial turbulence in the pre-chamber, demonstrating a notable influence on flame propagation. Fine-tuning of the forcing coefficient reproduces the sudden pressure growth observed in the experiment. The experimentally validated pre-chamber simulation serves as the initial condition for the full TJI simulations. It is found that the LFRC model fails to predict lean-ignition in the main-chamber, resulting in a misfiring event. Incorporation of turbulence-chemistry interaction using the transported PDF method substantially improves the prediction of the ignition event in the main-chamber, achieving fair qualitative agreement and quantitative validation of combustion parameters within 10% of the reported experimental data. The rich simulation results consisting of a full set of statistical description of the thermo-chemical states enable us to gain deep insights into the ignition mechanisms in the main chamber, which is limited when done experimentally. A novel dual ignition phenomenon is revealed in the TJI rig for the first time. Initially, a primary ignition kernel is formed at a downstream location which eventually detaches from the main jet. As the jet momentum decreases, a secondary ignition event follows, this time at a more upstream location which eventually combines with the primary ignition kernel to form a single connected flame front. Investigation of these ignition sequences in chemical composition space reveal distinct differences between the two. The primary ignition event in the main-chamber is followed by a large concentration of active radicals from the pre-chamber jet, accelerating the chain-branching steps, characterizing what has been referred to as flame ignition. In contrast, the secondary ignition occurs in the absence of active radicals in the pre-chamber jet, hence characterized as jet ignition. Further analysis of the effect of pre-chamber jet characteristics on lean ignition in the main-chamber is conducted by setting up cases with different initial pressure ratios (p_r^o) between the two chambers, a non-dimensional parameter, ranging from 1.2 to 3.2. As the initial pressure ratio increases, jet momentum increases, with dual ignition observed in cases above p_r^o= 2.2. Case with p_r^o= 3.2 lead to misfiring. The effect of ignition sequence on global combustion characteristics of TJI is analyzed. Dual ignition events lead to non-monotonicity in combustion characteristics such as global reaction progress variable, flame penetration, and global heat release rate. In dual ignition events, although the rate of fuel consumption and global heat release rate is initially lower, the secondary ignition leads to a sudden increase in flame surface area, resulting in a sudden jump and promoting the overall performance of the TJI system.</p>

<p dir="ltr">As a means to address the imminent and severe threat of global climate change, the emissions of the transportation sector must be addressed in the near term. Harnessing limited computational resources in an efficient manner is paramount to improving our existing internal combustion (IC) systems; however, low fidelity models have been shown to have difficulty accurately representing a highly turbulent combustor, such as in Turbulent Jet Ignition (TJI). TJI replaces the spark ignition source of a conventional IC system with a small combustion chamber that injects hot ignition products into the main combustion chamber. This process reduces the probability of engine misfires, particularly at the ultra-lean condition, improving the thermal efficiency of existing IC systems. This study develops a framework for the training and validation of a Deep Neural Network (DNN) model for the prediction of chemical reaction rates as a means to address the poor performance of existing low-fidelity combustion models for TJI. A high-fidelity combustion simulation was performed under the large eddy simulation (LES) equations with a transported probability density function (PDF) combustion model, and validated against experimental results gathered from a single-cycle TJI rig performed by a research group at Purdue University. This simulation data was used to train a DNN model to predict the turbulent reaction rates for a 19-species, 84-reaction reduced order reaction mechanism for the combustion of methane. A supervised learning approach involving stochastic gradient descent with backpropagation was used to optimize the DNN model; additionally, a self-organizing map (SOM) was used to cluster the model input into burnt, unburnt and reacting regimes. The framework was then examined in three cases: initial a-priori validation against the LES-PDF training set, a-posteriori validation of a single-cycle test apparatus developed at Purdue University (Purdue TJI rig), and a-posteriori validation of a single-cylinder engine developed at Argonne National Laboratory (Argonne TJI engine). The study found that the a-priori performance of the model was dependent on the state of the SOM cluster, as the framework was only able to accurately predict species that were active in a given cluster. The framework was found to capture the ignition in the Purdue TJI rig under a low-fidelity Reynolds averaged Navier Stokes (RANS) simulation, while a traditional laminar finite rate chemistry (LFRC) model was unable to capture this event. When applied to the Argonne TJI engine, the framework outperformed the common SAGE model that was unable to capture the pressure rise seen in experimental results. However, the performance of the model was limited by the availability of simulation data, and there exists room for improvement in the model.</p>

[ES] Debido a las regulaciones en materia de emisiones y CO2 la industria automotriz a desarrollado diferentes tecnologías innovadoras. Estas tecnologías incluyen combustibles alternativos y nuevos modos de combustión, entre otros. De aquí surge la necesidad del desarrollo de nuevos métodos para el control de la combustión en estas condiciones mencionadas. Por este motivo, en este trabajo se han desarrollado diferentes modelos e indicadores orientados al diagnóstico y control de la combustión tanto en condiciones normales como anormales. Para los casos de combustión normal, se ha desarrollado un modelo de combustión, cuyo objetivo es estimar la media de la evolución de la fracción de la masa quemada y la presión dentro del cilindro. Se implementó un observador, basado en la señal de knock, con la finalidad de mejorar la estimación en condiciones transitorias y poder aplicar así el modelo a diferentes tipos de combustibles. También se presenta un modelo de variabilidad cíclica, en el cual, a partir del modelo de combustión, se propaga una distribución en dos de los parámetros de dicho modelo. Ambos modelos han sido aplicados para un motor de encendido provocado y un motor de combustión de encendido por chorro turbulento. En los casos de combustión anormal, se ha incluido un análisis de la resonancia dentro de la cámara de combustión, en donde también se desarrollaron dos modelos capaces de estimar la evolución de la resonancia. Estos modelos, tanto para condiciones normales como anormales, se utilizaron para el diagnóstico de la combustión. Por una parte, para la detección de knock, en donde tres estrategias de detección de knock fueron desarrolladas: dos basadas en el sensor de presión en cámara y una en el sensor de knock. Por otra parte, se realizó una aplicación de un modelo de resonancia para la mejora de la estimación de la masa atrapada a partir de la resonancia. Finalmente, para mostrar el potencial de los modelos de diagnóstico, dos aplicaciones a control se desarrollaron: una para el control de knock a través de la actuación de la chispa, y otra para el control de gases residuales, a través de la actuación de la distribución variable, realizando paralelamente una optimización de la combustión a través de la actuación de la chispa. / [CA] Impulsada per les regulacions en matèria d'emissions i CO2 la indústria automotriu a desenvolupat diferents tecnologies inovadore. Aquestes tecnologies inclouen combustibles alternatius i nous modes de combustió, entre altres. D'ací sorgix la necessitat posar en pràctica nous mètodes per al control de la combustió. En aquest context, el present trevall proposa diferents models i indicadors orientats al diagnòstic i control de la combustió tant en condicions normals com anormals. Per als casos de combustió normal, es proposa un model de combustió, l'objectiu del qual és estimar la mitjana de l'evolució de la fracció de la massa cremada i la pressió dins del cilindre. Es va implementar un observador, basat en la senyal de knock, amb la finalitat de millorar l'estimació en condicions transitòries i poder aplicar així el model a diferents tipus de combustibles. També es presenta un model de variabilitat cíclica, en el qual, a partir del model de combustió, es propaga una distribució en dos dels parametres del dit model. Ambdós models han sigut aplicats a un motor d'encesa provocada i un motor de combustió d'encesa per doll turbulent. Als casos de combustió anormal, s'ha inclos un anàlisi de la ressonància dins de la cambra de combustió, on també es van desenvolupar dos models capaços d'estimar l'evolució de la ressonància. Aquests models, tant per a condicions normals com anormals, s'utilitzen per al diagnòstic de la combustió. Per una part, per a la detecció de knock, on tres estratègies de detecció de knock s'han desenvolupat: dues basades en el sensor de pressió a la cambra de combustió i una altra basada en el sensor de knock. Per altra part, es va realitzar una aplicació d'un model de ressonància per a la millora de l'estimació de la massa atrapada a partir de la ressonància. Finalment, per a mostrar el potencial dels models de diagnòstic, dos aplicacions de control es van desenvolupar: una per al control de knock a través de l'actuació de l'espurna, i una altra per al control de gasos residuals, a través de l'actuació de la distribució variable, realitzant paral·lelament una optimització de la combustió a través de l'actuació de l'espurna. / [EN] The need to satisfy emissions and CO2 regulations is pushing the automotive industry to develop different innovative technologies. These technologies include alternative fuels and new modes of combustion, among others. Therefore, the need for the development of new methods for combustion control in these mentioned conditions arises. For this reason, in this work different models and indicators have been developed aimed at the diagnosis and control of combustion in both normal and abnormal conditions. For normal combustion cases, a combustion model has been developed, the objective of this model is to estimate the mean of evolution of the mass fraction burned and the in-cylinder pressure. An observer had been implemented, based on knock sensor signal, in order to improve the estimation in transient conditions and also to be able to make use of the model with different fuels. A cyclic variability model is also presented, where from the combustion model, a probability distribution is propagated over two of the parameters of such model. Both models had been applied for a spark ignition engine and a turbulent jet ignition combustion engine. For the abnormal combustion cases, an analysis of the resonance within the combustion chamber had been included, where two models capable of estimating the evolution of the resonance were also developed. These models, for both normal and abnormal conditions, were used for the diagnosis of combustion: on the one hand, for knock recognition, where three knock detection strategies were developed: two based on the in-cylinder pressure sensor and one on the knock sensor. On the other hand, an application of a resonance model was carried out in order to improve the estimation of the trapped mass from the resonance excitation. Finally, to show the potential of such models and applications, two control strategies were developed: one for the control of knock through the actuation of the spark advance, and a second for the control of residual gases, through the actuation of the variable valve timing, while optimizing the combustion through the actuation of the spark advance. / El trabajo desarrollado en esta tesis ha sido posible gracias a la financiación de la Generalitat Valenciana y el fondo social europeo a través de la beca 132 GRISO- LIAP/2018/132 y BEFPI/2021/042. / Jiménez, IA. (2022). Development of Combustion Indicators for Control of Multi-Fuel Engines Based on New Combustion Concepts [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/181561

[ES] La búsqueda por la neutralidad de carbono para mitigar los efectos del cambio climático ha impulsado la investigación de fuentes de energía alternativas, así como de formas más eficientes de utilizar la matriz energética actual y futura en todos los sectores de la economía. En el sector del transporte, que representa alrededor del 10% de las emisiones totales de gases de efecto invernadero, la electrificación y el uso de combustibles libres de carbono son alternativas a largo plazo. Sin embargo, los motores de combustión interna de alta eficiencia aún siguen jugando un papel importante en la descarbonización del sector. En este contexto, el sistema de encendido por precámara es un método promisor para aumentar la eficiencia térmica de los motores para coches de pasajeros y los motores para la generación de energía debido a su fuente de ignición de alta energía, lo que permite una operación pobre y mitiga el knock en alta carga y baja velocidad. En este marco, esta tesis tiene como objetivo profundizar el conocimiento del método de encendido por precámara, centrándose en el análisis de la eyección del chorro por medio de técnicas ópticas y datos de presión de cilindro. Para cumplir con este objetivo, se ha propuesto estudiar precámaras de un solo orificio en instalaciones experimentales simplificadas como el primer paso para mejor comprender dicho método de ignición. Partiendo de la necesidad de determinar correctamente el volumen y el diámetro del orificio de esta precámara simplificada, se ha llevado a cabo un estudio teórico y numérico para identificar los principales parámetros geométricos para reproducir lo más fielmente posible las características del chorro de una geometría de PC ya existente en una geometría simplificada. En este sentido, se ha utilizado un modelo numérico termodinámico para suministrar los datos de entrada para el modelo unidimensional de spray utilizado para predecir la penetración del chorro para diferentes geometrías de PC y condiciones de operación. Una vez conocidos los parámetros geométricos clave que gobiernan la eyección del chorro, se ha rediseñada una máquina de compresión-expansión rápida (RCEM) para estudios ópticos de precámaras y se ha evaluado el efecto de la geometría de la precámara, del dosado, y de la tasa de EGR en la eyección del chorro y la ignición de la cámara principal por medio de la presión en ambas cámaras y imágenes simultáneas de schlieren y quimioluminiscencia OH*. Por fin, como complemento al análisis de precámaras de un solo orificio en la RCEM, se ha evaluado el efecto del diámetro del orificio y los parámetros de operación del motor en un motor óptico. Se han utilizado imágenes de alta velocidad de quimioluminiscencia de banda ancha y datos de presión en el cilindro para evaluar las características del chorro y el desarrollo de la combustión en la cámara principal en tres geometrías de precámara bajo diferentes dosados. / [CA] La busca de la neutralitat de carboni per a mitigar els efectes del canvi climàtic ha impulsat la investigació de fonts d'energia alternatives, així com de formes més eficients d'utilitzar la matriu energètica actual i futura en tots els sectors de l'economia. En el sector del transport, que representa al voltant del 10% de les emissions totals de gasos d'efecte d'hivernacle, l'electrificació i l'ús de combustibles lliures de carboni són alternatives a llarg termini. No obstant això, mentrestant els motors de combustió interna d'alta eficiència continuen jugant un paper important en la descarbonització del sector del transport. En este context, el sistema d'encesa per precàmera és un mètode promissor per a augmentar l'eficiència tèrmica dels motors per a cotxes de passatgers i els motors per a la generació d'energia a causa de la seua font d'ignició d'alta energia, la qual cosa permet una operació pobra i mitiga el knock en operació a baixa velocitat i alta càrrega. En este marc, esta tesi té com a objectiu aprofundir el coneixement del procés d'encesa per precàmera, centrant-se en l'anàlisi de l'ejecció del doll per mitjà de tècniques òptiques i dades de pressió de cilindre. Per a complir amb este objectiu, s'ha proposat estudiar precàmeres d'un sol orifici en installacions experimentals simplificades com el primer pas per a comprendre este mètode d'ignició. Partint de la necessitat de determinar correctament el volum de la precàmera i el diàmetre de l'orifici d'esta configuració simplificada, es va dur a terme un estudi teòric i numèric per a identificar els principals paràmetres geomètrics per a reproduir tan bé com siga possible les característiques del doll d'una precàmera amb múltiples orificis en una geometria de precàmera simplificada. Una vegada coneguts els paràmetres geomètrics clau que impulsen l'ejecció del doll, s'ha redissenyada una màquina de compressió-expansió ràpida (RCEM) per a estudis òptics de precàmeres i s'ha avaluat l'efecte de la geometria de la precàmera, del dosatge, i de la taxa de EGR en l'ejecció del doll i la ignició de la cambra principal per mitjà de la pressió en totes dues cambres i imatges simultànies de schlieren i quimioluminescència OH*. Per fi, com a complement a l'anàlisi de precàmeres d'un sol orifici en la RCEM, s'ha avaluat l'efecte del diàmetre de l'orifici i els paràmetres d'operació del motor en un motor òptic. S'han utilitzat imatges d'alta velocitat de quimioluminescència de banda ampla i dades de pressió en el cilindre per a avaluar les característiques del doll i el desenrotllament de la combustió en la càmera principal en tres geometries de precàmera sota diferents dosatges. / [EN] The pursuit of carbon neutrality to mitigate the effects of climate change has been demanding research into alternative energy sources, as well as more efficient ways of using the current and future energy matrix in all sectors of the economy. In the transportation sector, which accounts for about 10% of the total greenhouse gas emissions, electrification and the use of carbon-free fuels are promising alternatives in the long term. In the meanwhile, however, highly efficient internal combustion engines still play an important role in the decarbonization of the transportation sector. In this context, the pre-chamber ignition system is an attractive method to increase the thermal efficiency of small engines for passenger cars and large-bore engines for power generation due to its high-energy ignition source, enabling lean operation and mitigating knock at low-speed and high-load operation. Within this framework, this present thesis aims to further understand the pre-chamber ignition concept, focusing on the jet ejection analysis by means of optical techniques and in-cylinder pressure data. In order to fulfill this objective, the study of single-orifice pre-chambers on simplified experimental facilities was proposed as the first step for understanding such ignition method. Arising from the necessity to correctly determine the pre-chamber volume and orifice diameter of this simplified configuration, a theoretical and numerical study was carried out to identify the main geometrical parameters to reproduce as much as possible the jet characteristics of an existing PC geometry into a simplified pre-chamber geometry. In this sense, an one-dimensional engine model was used to provide the input data for the one-dimensional spray model used to predict the jet penetration for different PC geometries and operating conditions. Once the key geometrical parameters that drive the jet ejection were addressed, a Rapid Compression-Expansion Machine (RCEM) was redesigned for pre-chamber optical studies, and the effect of the pre-chamber geometry, equivalence ratio, and EGR rate on the jet ejection and MC ignition was assessed by means of in-cylinder pressure on both chambers and simultaneous Schlieren and OH* chemiluminescence optical techniques. Finally, as a complement to the analysis of single-orifice pre-chambers on the RCEM, the effect of the diameter of the orifices and the engine operating parameters was assessed in a small optical engine. High-speed broadband chemiluminescence imaging and in-cylinder pressure data were used to evaluate the jet characteristics and the main chamber combustion development for three pre-chamber geometries under different mixture conditions. / This thesis was developed with the assistance of the Universitat Politècnica de València through the predoctoral contract FPI-2019-20-545. / Beltrão De Vargas Antolini, J. (2024). Assessment of the pre-chamber ignition concept: insights from rapid compression-expansion machine and optical engine testing [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/214193