Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is a severe genetic neuromuscular disorder characterised by lower motor neuron degeneration and paralysis. Although it is a leading genetic cause of childhood death no approved treatment options currently exist. As SMA is caused by low levels of the survival motor neuron (SMN) protein the majority of therapeutic strategies under development are therefore aimed at trying to elevate SMN levels. However, a number of limitations with these approaches exist demonstrating a need for the investigation of SMN-independent therapeutics. Of these non-classical pathways, the ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS) is an exciting new area of SMA research. The UPS is a system which degrades unwanted or damaged proteins and alterations in the UPS (including reduced levels of ubiquitin-like modifier activating enzyme 1 [Uba1] and increased levels of ubiquitin carboxyl-terminal esterase L1 [Uchl1] and β-catenin) have been recently identified in the neuromuscular system of SMA mice, providing promising new targets for therapy development. In this thesis I demonstrate that UPS perturbations are also present in other organ systems of severe ‘Taiwanese’ SMA mice and in other SMA models including intermediate Smn2B/− mice, zebrafish and patient derived iPSC motor neurons. Given the previously demonstrated improved neuromuscular phenotype in SMA mice treated with the β-catenin inhibitor quercetin I have been establishing whether other compounds with β-catenin inhibition offer similar or even better therapeutic options. Aspirin, indomethacin and iCRT-14 trials did not improve the SMA phenotype with likely off-target adverse effects meaning that quercetin remains the most tolerable β- catenin inhibitor in SMA mice to date. Another potential target of the UPS for SMA therapeutics is the deubiquitinating enzyme Uchl1, levels of which are increased in SMA. In this thesis I show that pharmacological inhibition of Uchl1 did not improve survival or motor performance in SMA mice and instead had a detrimental impact on the disease phenotype which could be explained by worsening SMA ubiquitin defects. Histological analysis revealed that there was no improvement in lower motor neuron count numbers, neuromuscular junction deficits or muscle fibre diameters. Mimicking the UPS phenotype in primary neuronal cells suggested that targeting UPS perturbations observed in SMA that are upstream of Uchl1, particularly the loss of Uba1, may therefore offer a more effective therapeutic option. Finally, I therefore examined whether increasing Uba1 levels in SMA mice using gene therapy technology was able to improve the SMA phenotype. My initial studies indicate that delivery of AAV9-UBA1 to SMA mice may be beneficial as intraperitoneal injection of AAV9-UBA1 was found to increase the weight and improve motor performance of SMA mice. Intravenous delivery of AAV9-UBA1 was found to further improve expression levels and biodistribution of AAV9-UBA1 in the central nervous system as well as systemically in all body organs and tissues. Western blot and proteomic analysis revealed that AAV9-UBA1 gene therapy is also able to correct downstream UPS perturbations found in SMA as well as increase SMN levels. Together, these results suggest that AAV9-UBA1 gene therapy is an exciting novel therapeutic approach for SMA.

L’ubiquitylation est une modification post-transcriptionelle qui est nécessaire pour la dégradation des protéines mais aussi pour la régulation et la localisation de nombreux facteurs. Un grand nombre de protéines impliquées dans la réplication de l’ADN et dans la réponse aux lésions de l’ADN sont ubiquitylées. L’ubiquitylation durant la réponse aux dommages de l’ADN dépend de l’enzyme d’activation de l’ubiquitine UBA1 qui est située au sommet de la cascade d’ubiquitination. Durant ma thèse, j’ai mis à jour le mécanisme de recrutement d’UBA1 au niveau de l’ADN endommagé ainsi qu’un rôle majeur de l’ubiquitylation dans la voie de signalisation ATR.A l’aide d’une approche in vitro qui mime la voie de signalisation ATR, j’ai montré qu’UBA1 est recrutée au niveau de molécules d’ADN linéaire et qu’elle est nécessaire à l’ubiquitylation des protéines recrutées sur ce substrat. J’ai également découvert que l’ubiquitylation et le recrutement d’UBA1 in vitro sont dépendants de la kinase DNA-PKcs et de la poly(ADP-ribose) polymérase PARP1, deux senseurs majeurs des lésions de l’ADN. Il apparait que PARP1 régule le recrutement d’UBA1 via la formation de chaines de poly(ADP)-ribose (PAR). De plus, j’ai montré qu’UBA1 est capable de se lier aux chaines PAR. J’ai identifié la région d’UBA1 capable d’interagir avec les chaines PAR : il apparait que cette région est désorganisée et riche en acide aminés hydrophobes. La comparaison de la protéine UBA1 de levure et la protéine UBA6 humaine qui ne lient pas PAR nous a permis d’identifier les acides aminées hydrophobes nécessaires pour la lésion à PAR.J’ai aussi démontré qu’UBA1 est nécessaire pour la réponse aux lésions de l’ADN. En effet, l’inhibition ou la déplétion d’UBA1 conduit à une perte de la phosphorylation de Chk1 dans notre système in vitro. De même, le traitement avec des molécules induisant des lésions de l’ADN telles que le CPT, le MMS et la bléocine conduit à une phosphorylation moindre de Chk1 lorsqu’UBA1 est inhibée. Afin de démontrer que la liaison d’UBA1 aux chaines PAR est cruciale pour la réponse aux dommages, j’ai mis en place un système in vivo permettant d’exprimer des mutants d’UBA1 incapable de lier les chaines PAR.Globalement mes résultats indiquent qu’UBA1 est recrutée au niveau de l’ADN endommagé à l’aide de PARP1 et DNA-PKcs. Plus précisément, il apparait que la liaison avec les chaines PAR et l’ubiquitylation de protéines spécifiques est nécessaire pour la mise en place de la voie de signalisation ATR. L’importance d’UBA1 dans le processus est soulignée par le fait que son inhibition ou son inactivation conduit à une phosphorylation moindre de Chk1. Il est raisonnable de penser que des inhibiteurs d’UBA1 puissent être utilisés pour cibler la voie ATR dans les cellules cancéreuses. Finalement, cette étude devrait permettre de mieux comprendre comment les interactions entre les processus d’ubiquitylation et de PARylation permettent de réguler la réponse aux dommages. / Ubiquitylation is an important posttranslational modification that is necessary for protein degradation as well as for the regulation and the localization of many cellular factors. A number of proteins implicated in DNA replication and DNA damage response are ubiquitylated. Ubiquitylation during the DNA damage response is selectively dependent on the ubiquitin-activating enzyme UBA1, which functions at the apex of the ubiquitylation cascade. In this thesis, I describe the mechanism of UBA1 recruited at damaged sites and uncover the role of ubiquitylation in ATR signaling.Using a cell free system developed in the lab that recapitulates ATR kinase-signaling pathway, I present evidence that, UBA1 is recruited to linear DNA substrates and mediate ubiquitylation of DNA-bound proteins. I found that protein ubiquitylation and the recruitment of UBA1 to DNA in cell-free extracts was dependent on the kinase DNA-PKcs and on the poly ADP-ribose polymerase PARP1, two sensors of DNA lesions. PARP1 regulates UBA1 recruitment in large part through poly (ADP)-ribose (PAR) chain formation. UBA1 exhibited affinity for PARP1 and for PAR chains. Furthermore, we have identified minimal region on UBA1 which is prominently hydrophobic and disordered region of UBA1 which are required for its PAR binding activity. Through comparison with yeast UBA1 and human UBA6 which failed to bind with PAR chains, we identified hydrophobic amino acid residues which are critical for PAR binding.I also show evidence that UBA1 is required for efficient DNA damage signaling. In a cell free system, chemical inhibition or siRNA depletion of UBA1 led to the loss of ChK1 phosphorylation, suggesting that UBA1 activity is required for efficient DNA damage response. Consistent with these observations, when cells were treated with DNA lesion inducing drugs like CPT, MMS and Bleocin, we observed less efficient Chk1 phosphorylation. I have developed UBA1 replacement system to demonstrate functional significance of mutation in PAR binding residues of UBA in DNA damage response.Collectively, these results indicate that UBA1 is recruited to DNA damaged sites in a DNA-PKcs and PARP1 dependent-manner, in a larger part through its interaction with PAR chains and that protein ubiquitylation on DNA damages is necessary for the assembly of a productive ATR signaling complex. The importance of role of UBA1 in DNA damage response is underscored by the finding that UBA1 inhibition leads to inefficient Chk1 phosphorylation which is required for efficient DNA damage response. Thus, UBA1 inhibitors could be used to target ATR signaling in cancer cells. This study should eventually lead us to provide more insights on how cell maintains genome integrity through crosstalk between posttranslational modifications including ubiquitylation and PARylation.

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is an autosomal recessive neuromuscular disorder characterized by widespread loss of lower motor neurons from the spinal cord. Lower motor neuron degeneration leads to a progressive decline in motor development, manifesting as muscle atrophy and weakness. It is now well characterised that ubiquitin homeostasis is altered in SMA and that reduction of the ubiquitin-like modifier-activating enzyme 1 (UBA1) is central to this disruption. UBA1 is responsible for activating ubiquitin as the first step in the ubiquitin conjugation process, marking unwanted proteins for degradation by the proteasome. While it is known that therapies targeting UBA1 rescue neuromuscular phenotypes in SMA models, the mechanism by which UBA1 mediates neurodegeneration is unclear. In fact, very little is known about the function of UBA1 beyond its canonical role in the ubiquitin proteasome system. To better understand the role of UBA1 in motor neuron degeneration, a robust set of antibodies for both in vivo and in vitro work to study UBA1 have been identified. This enabled a novel characterisation of UBA1 distribution throughout disease progression in SMA spinal motor neurons to be performed, revealing that UBA1 reduction is an important pre-symptomatic molecular feature of SMA. To identify downstream targets of UBA1 critical for UBA1-mediated degeneration in SMA, label-free proteomics was performed on HEK293 cells after overexpression or knockdown of UBA1. The proteomics data was analysed across multiple platforms, including Biolayout, IPA and DAVID to identify UBA1-dependent pathways and demonstrated that modulation of UBA1 levels lead to disruption of key cellular pathways including translation elongation, nuclear transport, and tRNA synthetases. Validation of target proteins from these UBA1-dependent pathways identified that the tRNA synthetease GARS behaves in a UBA1-dependent manner across a range of model systems in vitro and in vivo. It was then identified that GARS expression is significantly dysregulated across a range of neuronal tissues in a mouse model of SMA. Interestingly, mutations in GARS cause Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 2D (CMT2D), an axonal neuropathy, in which a disruption to sensory neuron fate in dorsal root ganglia has recently been identified. In a mouse model of SMA we identified a phenotype consistent with that in the CMT2D mouse model and showed that disruption to sensory neuron fate is reversible and dependent on changes in UBA1 and GARS expression in SMA. In conclusion, modulation of UBA1 levels leads to disruption of key cellular pathways, with dysregulation of tRNA synthetases a prominent feature that is likely to play a role in the pathogenesis of SMA.