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This research studied the changes in the design of the American drug store from the 1800s to the present. The changing demands of the customer primarily have driven the design evolution. Drug stores of the nineteenth century were typically located on busy street corners alongside storefronts with similar architecture. Inside, they were long, dark, and narrow, and pharmaceuticals and goods were sold from behind glass display cases. During the first half of the twentieth century, modernization and convenience for the customer transformed the drug store into a large, bright, and open store in mall space featuring self-service, food service, and a wider variety of retail goods. The later years of the century saw a loss of food service, the construction of freestanding buildings with ample parking space at busy intersections, and drive-thru pharmacies. These changes were seen in most drug stores regardless of their geographical location in the United States. / Department of Architecture

Walt Whitman has long been celebrated as a Romantic writer who celebrates the self, reveres Nature, claims unity in all things, and sings praises to humanity. However, some of what Whitman has to say has been overlooked. Whitman often questioned the goodness of humanity. He recognized evil in various shapes. He pondered death and the imperturbability of Nature to human death. He exhibited nightmarish imagery in some of his works and gory violence in others. While Whitman has long been called a celebratory poet, he is nevertheless also in part a writer of the Dark Romantic.

"Victorianism" is a highly controversial, sometimes ironic, term penned by historians throughout various works that has come to hold dramatic weight in both its meaning and its influence. Though the term is usually most closely associated with nineteenth century England, Victorianism was a highly influential movement in American culture simultaneously as well, specifically in the spheres of home, work, and play. Of those, "play," or leisure, is undoubtedly the least explored, especially before the latter decades of the twentieth century. Prior to this period, most literature about the Victorians, with the exception of a few works, only dealt with masculinity, religion, and the rigid dynamic of the nineteenth century household. Recently, historians like James Walvin, Pamela Horn, and Hugh Cunningham have attempted to draw attention to Victorian leisure with excellent works on pastimes and society during the nineteenth century, but they represent only a few. However, many works of this caliber focus on England, the "birthplace" of Victorianism. Thus, this work attempts to emphasize that the cultural phenomenon of Victorianism was just as present in the United States. Despite the recurring themes of the home and the workplace so often chosen by scholars, it is actually within the realm of leisure that the controversial issues of the Victorian period and its people can be best observed. Class, race, and gender were three major components of the Victorian culture that shaped the various forms of leisure and recreation, as well as the specific restrictions on those amusements. All of these factors had a shared, tremendous influence on the progress (or lack thereof) towards a more modern era and society that occurred at the turn of the twentieth century. iv In the pages to follow, the numerous contradictions and paradoxes of Victorian leisure in America will be examined, ultimately demonstrating how pastimes and recreation (and their outlets) in the mid to late nineteenth century were neither truly Victorian nor truly progressive, but indeed a combination of both. This creates further irony during this controversial period. However, before exploring these outlets, the term "Victorian" will be examined while placing it into the context of mid to late nineteenth century Americans who belonged to all classes of travelers. It will become apparent that American Victorians had much invested in their values, but were also willing to break the rules regarding certain amusements and pleasures. Moreover, the "democratization" of leisure will be highlighted as the upper and lower classes began to enjoy the same recreations. Marked innovations of the period will also be discussed, as to highlight their importance on Victorian leisure and its development, which will also be referred to throughout the chapters. These topics will be addressed before examining the specific Victorian leisure culture of two of America’s oldest seaside destinations: Cape May and Atlantic City, both in New Jersey. The guests, accommodations and transportation, and offerings at these resort towns will act as a mirror into mid to late nineteenth century culture. There, the contradictory ideals and rules of Victorianism are exhibited as the resorts rose to prominence. The decline of "elite-only" leisure and the rise of the "excursionist" will be examined throughout the progression of the towns’ growth and boom periods. Exploring the ironies of Victorian leisure through the proverbial lens of Cape May and Atlantic City proves effective, as the towns came to represent opposite ends of the "socially acceptable" spectrum after a short period, and were full of similar inconsistencies and paradoxes themselves. Additionally, their current fates remain a product of their polarized v Victorian heydays, further proving the influence of seaside resort culture, the late Victorian period, and its ideals on the broader field of American leisure history.

This study attempts to establish the fact that Whitman was a frequent attendant at the legitimate theatre and that throughout his life he had a vital concern for it. The nature and scope of Whitman's interest in the legitimate theatre has been examined in detail to show by specific reference to his works the probable effect of his theatrical interest.

It is the scope and purpose of this study to investigate the Whitman-woman relationship and to attempt to answer, so far as this Whitman puzzle may be answered, the question of the effect of women on the Whitman philosophy and the nature of that philosophy concerning women.

A study of the influence of Negro slavery on Emerson's concept of freedom.

This thesis outlines the early developmental history of concrete block in America with special attention being placed on the years leading up to the St. Louis Louisiana Purchase Exposition of 1904. In general, the history of concrete block in contemporary building material histories begins with the innovations in block machinery that took place at the turn of the 20th century. However, the history of concrete block begins much earlier than these innovations. Harmon S. Palmer invented the first commercially successful concrete block machine in 1900, but there were many reasons why concrete block became widely used during the first half of the 20th century. The establishments of a domestic Portland cement industry, the innovations in concrete block machinery, and the marketing and promotion of concrete and concrete block at the 1904 St. Louis Louisiana Purchase Exposition, are all major reasons why concrete block began to be widely used in America. / Concrete : primer -- Concrete : a brief history -- Concrete block : an early history -- Portland cement -- The commercialization of concrete block -- Concrete block on the world stage : the 1904 Louisiana Purchase Exposition. / Department of Architecture

The Federal government's involvement in railroad labor disputes was one of the earliest examples of government intervention in the economy. Initially, when the economy was crippled by railroad strikes in the late nineteenth century, the government stepped in and crushed them with troops and injunctions. The Federal government's other approach was legislative, beginning with the passage of the Arbitration Act of 1888. As the first piece of Federal arbitration legislation, it had a significant impact on the development of subsequent labor legislation, such as the Railway Labor Act of 1926 and the National Labor Relations Act in 1935. Several methods are used to assess the impact and importance of the Arbitration Act. First, the political economy of the Arbitration Act is examined. Railroad owners opposed this legislation, fearing it would hinder their ability to hire, fire, and deal with striking workers. Organized labor favored arbitration, viewing such government intervention as providing a mandate that would compel, even force, employers to recognize unions. The ability of these constituent groups to influence their elected representatives is quantitatively tested using a simple model of legislative choice. The Arbitration Act was viewed as harmless, and even useless, by many Congressmen. Whether this legislation was effective is an important investigation. Two approaches are used to assess the impact of the legislation. The first uses a monthly index of railroad stocks to investigate how the expected future profitability of railroad firms was affected. The price of railroad stocks fell, which implies that the legislation was expected to reduce future profits. Investors felt that this legislation did not serve the best interests of railroad capital. The second approach examines how the passage of arbitration legislation affected strike frequency and duration. The analysis of the impact of the Arbitration Act confirms that the mere presence of arbitration procedures can lead to an increase in strike activity. Evidently, the relative costs of railroad strikes were lowered, thus increasing strike activity. The imposition of legislated bargaining procedures can produce unexpected results, as illustrated by the Arbitration Act's effect on railroad strikes.

Windows are a significant feature of building construction that have largely escaped notice in terms of their design and fabrication in America from the time of European colonization to the mid-nineteenth century. This thesis tells the story of the glass, woodworking, and hardware technologies that transformed windows from hand-crafted to mass-produced building components. It also explores the stylistic, social, and economic factors that underlie the development and usage of windows in America. / Department of Architecture