No description available.

In the last 50 years, Mexico, like many other countries in Latin America, Asia and Africa, has experienced accelerated urban growth. Urban growth has been accompanied by an increase in urban poverty. While the spatial distribution of poverty in urban areas in Mexico is varied, new settlements that tend to grow in the peri-urban hinterland of cities are largely associated with poverty. This is because inexpensive, but mostly illegal, agricultural land (ejido or private) has been alienated to satisfy the demands of low income population for housing. The focus of this study lay in the Metropolitan Area of Mexico City (MAMC), which is the habitat of diverse low-income groups. Among those groups are the campesinos (people with rural background engaged totally or partially in agricultural livelihoods). Some studies have suggested that campesinos are very vulnerable to urban growth, since population expansion has put severe pressure on their agricultural land, which, despite its marginal value, is used to produce crops for either semi-commercialisation or subsistence. Although such research has showed how poor campesinos have engaged in non-agricultural activities to make a living and how land and their communities are threatened by urban growth due to speculative pressures on land and/or environmental deterioration, little is known about the impact of urban growth in the process of impoverishment of campesinos living in peri-urban areas. This study aims to understand how the growth of the MAMC affects poverty in campesinos’ households, in order to recommend directions for poverty reduction. Three villages in Chalco municipality, which is situated in the peri-urban fringe of Mexico City, were selected as the study area. Based on the development of a conceptual framework, this study considered three interconnected elements underpinning poverty: multi-dimensionality, complexity and dynamism. For this reason, the Sustainable Livelihoods approach was selected as an analytical tool, as it provided a flexible analytical framework that encompasses all those elements. The study is divided in three stages. In the first stage (namely documental investigation), a series of published and unpublished written materials were reviewed to determine how the growth of the MAMC transformed the nature and availability of resources in Chalco municipality from 1970 to 2000. This stage was followed by the empirical investigation that aimed to examine how those transformations affected campesinos’ assets (human, natural, physical, productive and social), the strategies they used to adapt to such changes, and how they perceived changes in poverty status. Accordingly, for this stage, quantitative and qualitative longitudinal and cross-sectional data were collected from 110 campesinos’ households living in the study area in 1997 and 2003 by using structured questionnaires. Qualitative data were also collected by using semi-structured interviews from 34 campesinos’ households in 2000. The final stage, called recommendations, involved the synthesis of the results of the documental and empirical investigations and suggests a series of directions for poverty reduction in campesinsos’ households in the study area. The documental and empirical investigations revealed that changes in asset ownership, between 1997 to 2003, depended on both transformation in the nature and availability of resources in Chalco and intra-household organization. Fundamental transformations in socio-demographic, economic, natural, physical and political/organisational resources of Chalco municipality were mainly, but not exclusively, associated with the growth of the MAMC. Climatic and physical characteristics of Chalco were also evident. To respond to such changes, campesinos implemented a series of strategies to get access to resources. Such strategies were based on campesinos’ needs, priorities and the portfolio of assets available, and their functionality. It was clear that campesinos depleted some existing assets to acquire urban assets and preserve their rural assets. In some instances, such strategies led campesinos’ families to satisfy their basic needs and, therefore, perceive themselves as non-poor. However, in other instances, such strategies prevented families from meeting their needs, leading them to the perception of being poor. The recommendation was made that in order to reduce poverty among campesinos in the study area, it was necessary to identify different alternatives to support their urban and rural assets and certain of their strategies that improve the wellbeing of individuals, families and communities and mitigate constraints to meeting their goals.

No description available.

There are two possible approaches to the problem of a network of service facilities, where an individual customer passes through the network, queueing for service at some or all of these facilities. Either we produce methods by which the network may be decomposed into small manageable parts, or we must attempt to solve simultaneously for all the properties of the network, at a particular time. At present, the class of networks for which comprehensive solutions are known is so restricted that it is usually essential to consider the first approach, at least in the first instance. First we consider the problem of decomposition points, the points at which a stream of customers is broken up into several substreams, heading for different destinations. Conditions are established for a class of decomposition switches, which ensure that if the input stream to the switch is a Markov renewal process, then so are each of the substreams. We then investigate the behaviour of one of these substreams at a subsequent service facility. When the service times are exponentially distributed, an analysis of this, the SM/M/1 queue, based on the properties of the busy cycle, considerably simplifies and extends the results known for it. Some attempt is made to relax the condition on the service time distribution. Since there is always the possibility that a Poisson process approximation to the arrival stream may be acceptable, the dual of this queue, where the sequence of service times forms a Markov renewal process, is considered. This seems a particularly appropriate generalisation, since it allows for different classes of service requirements, perhaps reflecting the origin of customers from various parts of the network. In addition, some results are presented for a queue in which both the arrival times and service requirements depend on the sequence of customer types. Since the output from a queue in a network will form part or all of the input to a subsequent queue, we consider, finally, the departure processes from queues of the types that have been mentioned. Although, in general, it is not possible to describe the departure stream from queues of these types in terms of a particular stochastic process, we can find the distributions of some of the parameters of a very general departure process, in particular, the number of departures from the last queue mentioned above.

The review of property-related literature pertaining to valuer behaviour, valuation bias and smoothing all indicate that there are many behavioural issues that may affect valuation outcomes. Evidence suggests that heuristics may be one explanation for such phenomena, but a growing literature suggests that the role of the client within the valuation should also be considered. The main aim of this study therefore is to construct a framework of client influence in order to achieve an in-depth understanding of the commercial valuation process and the role played by the client within this process. Previous research in the area of behavioural property research has been undertaken utilising a quantitative research approach, however by introducing a qualitative approach a richer and more in-depth understanding of the topic was achieved. The research question addressed in this study was established as "How do clients influence valuation outcomes?". Constructionism identified the underlying assumption about reality governing the research; based on the premise that different people construct meaning in different ways in relation to the same phenomena. The theoretical perspective was determined to be interpretivism which was guided by the study's goal of assessing the nature of reality for both valuers and clients regarding the valuation process. The research process consisted of four stages, the first being the literature review and the construction of a preliminary framework of client influence. The second stage incorporated one-to-one interviews with valuers and the compilation of an updated framework. Stage 3 consisted of one-to-one interviews with clients and the compilation of a revised framework; and Stage 4 collected feedback from a number of experienced valuers and sophisticated clients in order to enhance the trustworthiness of the findings. The framework of client influence highlights eight main factors with the potential to affect the type and amount of client influence and power over the valuation process. These are described as the type of client; external pressures; valuer traits; the type of client valuer relationship; the characteristics of the valuation firm; the valuation process; the purpose of the valuation and finally technical valuation. In addition to the formulation of a framework of client influence the results provide a comprehensive understanding of the valuation process and specifically the incentives, power and opportunities clients have to influence valuations. The results of the study suggest that there are a number of specific influences not previously documented in the property literature that appear to have the potential to affect valuation outcomes and the valuations that are ultimately reported to stakeholders. In particular the strong influence the client has over the whole valuation process was uncovered. The main findings of the research suggest that clients possess not only the incentives and the ability to influence valuation outcomes, but the valuation process itself is largely governed by the client and provides opportunities for them to exert their power over the valuer. This influence does not only exist within the formal valuation process, but informally before the valuation has been commissioned. The study concludes by identifying scholarly contributions and contributions to the property profession. These suggest that the knowledge gained from the research can assist the property profession in understanding the role of both client and valuer in the valuation process and the tension that may exist between valuer independence and customer satisfaction. This knowledge can be used to effectively educate both valuers and clients of their roles in the valuation process together with areas where a valuer may be potentially vulnerable to undue influence.

There are two possible approaches to the problem of a network of service facilities, where an individual customer passes through the network, queueing for service at some or all of these facilities. Either we produce methods by which the network may be decomposed into small manageable parts, or we must attempt to solve simultaneously for all the properties of the network, at a particular time. At present, the class of networks for which comprehensive solutions are known is so restricted that it is usually essential to consider the first approach, at least in the first instance. First we consider the problem of decomposition points, the points at which a stream of customers is broken up into several substreams, heading for different destinations. Conditions are established for a class of decomposition switches, which ensure that if the input stream to the switch is a Markov renewal process, then so are each of the substreams. We then investigate the behaviour of one of these substreams at a subsequent service facility. When the service times are exponentially distributed, an analysis of this, the SM/M/1 queue, based on the properties of the busy cycle, considerably simplifies and extends the results known for it. Some attempt is made to relax the condition on the service time distribution. Since there is always the possibility that a Poisson process approximation to the arrival stream may be acceptable, the dual of this queue, where the sequence of service times forms a Markov renewal process, is considered. This seems a particularly appropriate generalisation, since it allows for different classes of service requirements, perhaps reflecting the origin of customers from various parts of the network. In addition, some results are presented for a queue in which both the arrival times and service requirements depend on the sequence of customer types. Since the output from a queue in a network will form part or all of the input to a subsequent queue, we consider, finally, the departure processes from queues of the types that have been mentioned. Although, in general, it is not possible to describe the departure stream from queues of these types in terms of a particular stochastic process, we can find the distributions of some of the parameters of a very general departure process, in particular, the number of departures from the last queue mentioned above.

The review of property-related literature pertaining to valuer behaviour, valuation bias and smoothing all indicate that there are many behavioural issues that may affect valuation outcomes. Evidence suggests that heuristics may be one explanation for such phenomena, but a growing literature suggests that the role of the client within the valuation should also be considered. The main aim of this study therefore is to construct a framework of client influence in order to achieve an in-depth understanding of the commercial valuation process and the role played by the client within this process. Previous research in the area of behavioural property research has been undertaken utilising a quantitative research approach, however by introducing a qualitative approach a richer and more in-depth understanding of the topic was achieved. The research question addressed in this study was established as "How do clients influence valuation outcomes?". Constructionism identified the underlying assumption about reality governing the research; based on the premise that different people construct meaning in different ways in relation to the same phenomena. The theoretical perspective was determined to be interpretivism which was guided by the study's goal of assessing the nature of reality for both valuers and clients regarding the valuation process. The research process consisted of four stages, the first being the literature review and the construction of a preliminary framework of client influence. The second stage incorporated one-to-one interviews with valuers and the compilation of an updated framework. Stage 3 consisted of one-to-one interviews with clients and the compilation of a revised framework; and Stage 4 collected feedback from a number of experienced valuers and sophisticated clients in order to enhance the trustworthiness of the findings. The framework of client influence highlights eight main factors with the potential to affect the type and amount of client influence and power over the valuation process. These are described as the type of client; external pressures; valuer traits; the type of client valuer relationship; the characteristics of the valuation firm; the valuation process; the purpose of the valuation and finally technical valuation. In addition to the formulation of a framework of client influence the results provide a comprehensive understanding of the valuation process and specifically the incentives, power and opportunities clients have to influence valuations. The results of the study suggest that there are a number of specific influences not previously documented in the property literature that appear to have the potential to affect valuation outcomes and the valuations that are ultimately reported to stakeholders. In particular the strong influence the client has over the whole valuation process was uncovered. The main findings of the research suggest that clients possess not only the incentives and the ability to influence valuation outcomes, but the valuation process itself is largely governed by the client and provides opportunities for them to exert their power over the valuer. This influence does not only exist within the formal valuation process, but informally before the valuation has been commissioned. The study concludes by identifying scholarly contributions and contributions to the property profession. These suggest that the knowledge gained from the research can assist the property profession in understanding the role of both client and valuer in the valuation process and the tension that may exist between valuer independence and customer satisfaction. This knowledge can be used to effectively educate both valuers and clients of their roles in the valuation process together with areas where a valuer may be potentially vulnerable to undue influence.

In the last 50 years, Mexico, like many other countries in Latin America, Asia and Africa, has experienced accelerated urban growth. Urban growth has been accompanied by an increase in urban poverty. While the spatial distribution of poverty in urban areas in Mexico is varied, new settlements that tend to grow in the peri-urban hinterland of cities are largely associated with poverty. This is because inexpensive, but mostly illegal, agricultural land (ejido or private) has been alienated to satisfy the demands of low income population for housing. The focus of this study lay in the Metropolitan Area of Mexico City (MAMC), which is the habitat of diverse low-income groups. Among those groups are the campesinos (people with rural background engaged totally or partially in agricultural livelihoods). Some studies have suggested that campesinos are very vulnerable to urban growth, since population expansion has put severe pressure on their agricultural land, which, despite its marginal value, is used to produce crops for either semi-commercialisation or subsistence. Although such research has showed how poor campesinos have engaged in non-agricultural activities to make a living and how land and their communities are threatened by urban growth due to speculative pressures on land and/or environmental deterioration, little is known about the impact of urban growth in the process of impoverishment of campesinos living in peri-urban areas. This study aims to understand how the growth of the MAMC affects poverty in campesinos’ households, in order to recommend directions for poverty reduction. Three villages in Chalco municipality, which is situated in the peri-urban fringe of Mexico City, were selected as the study area. Based on the development of a conceptual framework, this study considered three interconnected elements underpinning poverty: multi-dimensionality, complexity and dynamism. For this reason, the Sustainable Livelihoods approach was selected as an analytical tool, as it provided a flexible analytical framework that encompasses all those elements. The study is divided in three stages. In the first stage (namely documental investigation), a series of published and unpublished written materials were reviewed to determine how the growth of the MAMC transformed the nature and availability of resources in Chalco municipality from 1970 to 2000. This stage was followed by the empirical investigation that aimed to examine how those transformations affected campesinos’ assets (human, natural, physical, productive and social), the strategies they used to adapt to such changes, and how they perceived changes in poverty status. Accordingly, for this stage, quantitative and qualitative longitudinal and cross-sectional data were collected from 110 campesinos’ households living in the study area in 1997 and 2003 by using structured questionnaires. Qualitative data were also collected by using semi-structured interviews from 34 campesinos’ households in 2000. The final stage, called recommendations, involved the synthesis of the results of the documental and empirical investigations and suggests a series of directions for poverty reduction in campesinsos’ households in the study area. The documental and empirical investigations revealed that changes in asset ownership, between 1997 to 2003, depended on both transformation in the nature and availability of resources in Chalco and intra-household organization. Fundamental transformations in socio-demographic, economic, natural, physical and political/organisational resources of Chalco municipality were mainly, but not exclusively, associated with the growth of the MAMC. Climatic and physical characteristics of Chalco were also evident. To respond to such changes, campesinos implemented a series of strategies to get access to resources. Such strategies were based on campesinos’ needs, priorities and the portfolio of assets available, and their functionality. It was clear that campesinos depleted some existing assets to acquire urban assets and preserve their rural assets. In some instances, such strategies led campesinos’ families to satisfy their basic needs and, therefore, perceive themselves as non-poor. However, in other instances, such strategies prevented families from meeting their needs, leading them to the perception of being poor. The recommendation was made that in order to reduce poverty among campesinos in the study area, it was necessary to identify different alternatives to support their urban and rural assets and certain of their strategies that improve the wellbeing of individuals, families and communities and mitigate constraints to meeting their goals.

There are two possible approaches to the problem of a network of service facilities, where an individual customer passes through the network, queueing for service at some or all of these facilities. Either we produce methods by which the network may be decomposed into small manageable parts, or we must attempt to solve simultaneously for all the properties of the network, at a particular time. At present, the class of networks for which comprehensive solutions are known is so restricted that it is usually essential to consider the first approach, at least in the first instance. First we consider the problem of decomposition points, the points at which a stream of customers is broken up into several substreams, heading for different destinations. Conditions are established for a class of decomposition switches, which ensure that if the input stream to the switch is a Markov renewal process, then so are each of the substreams. We then investigate the behaviour of one of these substreams at a subsequent service facility. When the service times are exponentially distributed, an analysis of this, the SM/M/1 queue, based on the properties of the busy cycle, considerably simplifies and extends the results known for it. Some attempt is made to relax the condition on the service time distribution. Since there is always the possibility that a Poisson process approximation to the arrival stream may be acceptable, the dual of this queue, where the sequence of service times forms a Markov renewal process, is considered. This seems a particularly appropriate generalisation, since it allows for different classes of service requirements, perhaps reflecting the origin of customers from various parts of the network. In addition, some results are presented for a queue in which both the arrival times and service requirements depend on the sequence of customer types. Since the output from a queue in a network will form part or all of the input to a subsequent queue, we consider, finally, the departure processes from queues of the types that have been mentioned. Although, in general, it is not possible to describe the departure stream from queues of these types in terms of a particular stochastic process, we can find the distributions of some of the parameters of a very general departure process, in particular, the number of departures from the last queue mentioned above.

El texto completo de este trabajo no está disponible en el Repositorio Académico UPC por restricciones de la casa editorial donde ha sido publicado. / Introduction: Attributes of the neighborhood-built environment are associated with self-reported physical activity, but only a few studies have concentrated on device-measured physical activity in Latin America. This study examines the associations of perceived neighborhood-built environment attributes, device-measured sedentary time, and light-intensity and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity in adults from 8 Latin American countries. Methods: Data from Estudio Latinoamericano de Nutrición y Salud adult study, an observational multicountry study (N=2,478), were analyzed in 2020. Data were collected between 2014 and 2015. Perceived neighborhood-built environment attributes were measured using the Neighbourhood Environment Walkability Survey. Sedentary time, light-intensity physical activity, and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity data were collected using accelerometers. Results: No associations between perceived neighborhood-built environment attributes and sedentary time were found. Positive perceptions of walking/cycling facilities (β=6.50, 95% CI=2.12, 10.39) were associated with more light-intensity physical activity. Perceptions of better aesthetics (Argentina) and better walking/cycling facilities (Brazil and Ecuador) were positively associated with light-intensity physical activity. Land use mix–diversity (β=0.14, 95% CI=0.03, 0.25), walking/cycling facilities (β=0.16, 95% CI=0.05, 0.27), aesthetics (β=0.16, 95% CI=0.02, 0.30), and safety from traffic (β=0.18, 95% CI=0.05, 0.24) were positively associated with moderate-to-vigorous physical activity. Land use mix–diversity, street connectivity, and safety from traffic were positively associated with moderate-to-vigorous physical activity in Venezuela. Conclusions: These findings have implications for policy recommendations, which can guide policies to promote physical activity in the region. Land use mix–diversity, walking/cycling facilities, aesthetics, and safety from traffic can maintain or increase the levels of light-intensity and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity among Latin American adults.