<p> Horses are powerful animals: a galloping horse&rsquo;s forefoot hits the ground with an average of about 2,000 pounds of force. This can result in many kinds of injuries. To work with and love a horse properly, the owner needs to understand more than just grooming and feeding. Owners must understand how the horse operates, particularly the structure and workings of the horse&rsquo;s legs, to comprehend how a broken leg impairs a horse. This understanding enables the owner to work well with a veterinarian in determining the best course of treatment for an injury. </p><p> A review of the current veterinary literature and public resources showed that illustrated information regarding types of limb fractures in horses, options for repair and post-operative outcomes, that can be easily understood by the lay person, do not exist. The lack of sufficiently illustrated resources covering this topic indicates a great need for this valuable information. </p><p> The objective of this thesis is to illustrate common types of fractures, to assist owners in understanding different types of fractures, repair options, and possible outcomes of any intervention. Three cases, each with a specific type of fracture, were analyzed to develop understanding of the damage, the impact on the horse and surgical options versus the need for euthanasia. The finished product of this research was two posters, one for repair and the other for euthanasia, designed to enhance the owner&rsquo;s comprehension of the injuries.</p><p>

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Hundar är ett vanligt förekommande husdjur i många hushåll idag. I likhet med människor sådrabbas hundar av olika sjukdomar som kan kräva både kort- och långvarig medicinskbehandling. Följsamheten av läkemedelsanvändningen och därmed en lyckadläkemedelsbehandling hos djur är beroende av två faktorer: djurägaren och djuret självt.Syftet var att först undersöka vilka orala beredningsformer som vanligtvis används för kortoch långvarig läkemedelsbehandling till hund. Vidare är syftet att undersöka omberedningsformen påverkar följsamheten av läkemedelsbehandlingen. Slutligen är syftet attundersöka om det finns några särskilda formuleringsstrategier med syfte att förbättraläkemedelsföljsamheten för denna djurkategori. Metoden som användes var en systematisklitteraturöversikt med hjälp av databasen Google Scholar. Resultaten visade att tuggtablettermed en nötbräserad smak är de mest beredningsformen som frivilligt konsumerade av hundar.Resultaten visade även att administreringsfrekvensen samt tiden spenderat hos veterinären ärde två faktorerna som påverkar hundägarnas följsamhet. Slutsatsen som kan dras utifråndenna studie är att följsamheten hos hundarna påverkas av läkemedlets beredningsform menäven av hundägarnas följsamhet. Den beredningsformen som frivilligt accepteras samtkonsumeras av hundar i jämförelse med andra beredningsformer och smaker är mjukatuggtabletter med en nötbräserad smak.

Rationale: Viral diseases are important in the African context as they cause significant clinical disease in both wild and domestic animals, as well as in humans. Viral diseases make up a large proportion of emerging infectious diseases. The management and prevention of these diseases have proven to be challenging due to the large population of reservoir hosts consisting of African wildlife. There is no comprehensive publication investigating viruses in African ungulates. Hence, this research study will provide comprehensive analyses to add to the current global knowledge base and provide guidance about areas where there is little information. Aim of the study: Provide a scoping review of viral diseases, which occur in free-ranging African ungulates and identify knowledge gaps with regards to these diseases. Objectives: 1. List and describe viruses diagnosed in free-ranging African ungulates 2. Identify ungulates affected by viruses 3. Describe the geographical distribution of viruses 4. Identify viruses which appear to be “under-studied” Study design: This is a scoping review of peer reviewed publications pertaining to viruses and viral diseases in African ungulates. The methodology for this scoping review was based on the guidelines set out in the PRISMA extension for scoping reviews. A search string was developed and run in three major databases, namely Scopus, Web of Science and Wildlife and Ecology Worldwide, to obtain publications relevant to the research topic. Publications were screened using predetermined inclusion and exclusion criteria to obtain a final set of publications to undergo data extraction and analysis. Results: The final set of publications consisted of 145 publications. A total of 32 viruses were identified in the publications. The range of the publication dates were from 1957 to 2018. Nine out of 32 viruses accounted for 74% of the total reports of viruses detected by antigen/antibody testing in African ungulates. African elephant polyomavirus 1 was the only virus that was solely detected in captive animals according to published literature using antigen/antibody detection. A total of 50 African ungulates were reported/diagnosed with viral infections. The four most frequently mentioned African ungulates in publications reporting on viruses or viral diseases, in descending order, were the African buffalo, blue wildebeest, impala and warthog (common and desert). Of the 52 countries on the African continent, only 18 countries (35%) had viruses diagnosed in wild ungulates reported in the literature. All the publications in this study reported on viruses or viral diseases in ungulates from only sub-Saharan Africa. Foot-and-mouth disease, African swine fever, Rift Valley fever, bluetongue and rabies were frequently reported in the literature. On the contrary, lumpy skin disease, peste des petits ruminants, African horse sickness, enzootic hemorrhagic disease, bovine viral diarrhoea, infectious bovine rhinotracheitis/infectious pustular vulvovaginitis, equine influenza, equine viral arteritis, equine viral rhinopneumonitis and classical swine fever were infrequently reported on. Conclusion: There are a variety of viruses which have been diagnosed in African ungulates and all African ungulates identified have had one or more viruses or viral diseases associated with them. The findings will be valuable to policymakers, funding bodies, researchers and other stakeholders who need an understanding of viral diseases in African ungulates. Research opportunities in this field will allow them to make informed decisions about investment in future research projects and animal health policies and protocols. It is recommended that governments and research institutions offer more funding to investigate and report viral diseases of greater clinical and zoonotic significance, such as rabies and Rift Valley fever. This is especially important in the current climate of emerging diseases and the related overflow of disease from wild to domestic animals and from animals, both wild and domestic, to humans. A further recommendation is for appropriate One Health approaches to be adopted for investigating, controlling, managing and preventing diseases (Cunningham et al., 2017). This is especially true for diseases such as African swine fever and Rift Valley fever where human actions, poor biosecurity and natural weather changes play a major role in the transmission of diseases (Cunningham et al., 2017, Penrith et al., 2019a, Swanepoel and Coetzer, 2004). Diseases which may threaten the conservation of certain wildlife species also require focused attention. In order to keep track of these diseases it may be necessary to consider adding a “wildlife” category to the OIE-listed diseases. Viral diseases, as a whole, are of great significance and require extra attention in the future as they make up a large proportion of emerging infectious diseases and can often infect multiple hosts (Bengis et al., 2004, Cleaveland et al., 2001). Hence, the viruses and viral diseases diagnosed in African ungulates are of significance, particularly at the wildlife/livestock interface and many of them have the potential of becoming emerging wildlife diseases. / Dissertation (MSc (Tropical Animal Health))--University of Pretoria, 2020. / Veterinary Tropical Diseases / MSc (Tropical Animal Health) / Restricted

Master of Science / Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology / Carol R. Wyatt / Currently, porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) is the most economically significant disease affecting the swine industry. PRRSV is known for its restricted cell tropism, primarily infecting porcine alveolar macrophages (PAM) via receptor-mediated endocytosis. PRRSV infects only a portion of the PAM population both in vivo and in vitro, which suggests that not every macrophage is PRRSV-permissive. Three surface proteins that can act as receptors for PRRSV have been identified on PAM, however, little else is known about the regulation of macrophage tropism. Factors determining cellular permissibility or resistance to PRRSV infection remain largely uncharacterized, although a recent study from our laboratory demonstrated that 1) permissiveness to PRRSV infection increased with time in culture, 2) macrophages from infected pigs could be superinfected, and 3) addition of actinomycin D, which inhibits mRNA synthesis, blocked infection. These data suggest that a PRRSV-permissive subpopulation of cells derives from a non-permissive precursor population and depends on new mRNA synthesis. The current studies were designed to examine the effects of PRRSV on both infected and uninfected PAM cells in vitro, specifically focusing on the expression of MHC I, MHC II, CD14, CD163 and CD172a surface proteins. The results show upregulation of MHC II, CD14, CD163 and CD172a expression in PRRSV-infected cells and a downregulation on the uninfected cells within the PRRSV-inoculated cultures. The role of apoptosis in the PRRSV-inoculated cultures was investigated, with results showing similar, low levels of apoptosis in control and infected PAM. PAM cytokine responses to PRRSV and LPS were also examined and, although they were uniquely different relative to control PAM, no trends were detected in the responses of PAM infected with PRRSV compared to uninfected and classically stimulated PAM. These data confirm that there are at least two subsets of macrophages within the alveolar population and suggests that the subsets are differentially affected by PRRS virus. We also demonstrated that MHC I becomes undetectable on PAM as a result of the freezing process, and that PRRSV-permissiveness is greater in the cell population after freezing.

The examination of 220 normal and 130 diseased equine (extracted) cheek teeth was performed using a variety of traditional and novel imaging techniques primarily to assess the aetiopathogenesis of the important dental disorders of apical infection and "idiopathic" dental fracture. Optimal settings for radiography and computer axial scanning of normal and diseased cheek teeth were determined. It was found that standard radiography of extracted cheek teeth was very poor at identifying intradental anatomical or pathological features, whilst computer axial scanning gave accurate information on both normal and abnormal radiographic features. Newly established histological techniques allowed preparation of undecalcified sections of 4-6 μm thickness, and undecalcified sections of 50-60 μm thickness. The current classification of equine dentine was modified, with primary, regular secondary, irregular secondary and tertiary dentine all being categorised separately. Previously undescribed histological features of normal and diseased equine teeth were identified such as dentinal pearls, interglobular dentine, caries and the presence of pioneer micro-organisms. The normal endodontic anatomy of all 24 cheek teeth was established, with individual pulp horns being identified using a unique numbering system. Anatomical parameters of dentine were established for normal cheek teeth, and these were compared to those of apically infected cheek teeth. A decreased presence of primary and secondary dentine, predentine and intertubular dentine was found in diseased teeth compared with normal cheek teeth, but increased number of resting lines were present in diseased cheek teeth. Analysis of 50 individual apically infected cheek teeth showed anachoretic pulpitis to be the most common aetiology, with occlusal pulp exposure often being a secondary finding. Apical infection caused by periodontal disease or infundibular caries was uncommon finding. Fracture patterns to the clinical crown of equine cheek teeth were grouped, with most fractures involving the buccal pulp horns of both maxillary and mandibular cheek teeth.

Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis causes caseous lymphadenitis of sheep and goats and produces a phospholipase D (PLD) exotoxin which is putatively important in pathogenesis. Viability and function of ovine polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMN) treated with crude and purified forms of PLD were determined by various assays. PMN viability by dye exclusion showed the PLD-treatment had a significant effect only after 24 hour incubation. Scanning electron microscopy of PLD-treated ovine erythrocytes revealed membrane alterations, but no such alterations were seen in PLD-treated PMN. Transmission electron microscopy revealed significantly fewer granules in PMN treated with PLD, although other facets of phagocytic function appeared to be normal, including phagosome-lysosome fusion. PLD-treated PMN were significantly reduced in their ability to internalize Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis and to attach to or phagocytose Staphylococcus epidermidis. Purified PLD activated normal sheep serum, producing chemotactic factors. PLD treatment of PMN significantly reduced the ability of these cells to migrate toward activated sheep serum.

Research was conducted to develop gene probes to Baculovirus penaei (BP) from a cloning of BP genomic DNA and to test the applications of the gene probes. Five non-homologous probes representing >20% of the total BP genome were tested in dot blot and in situ hybridization assays. Four different dot blot hybridization assay systems were evaluated. Results obtained from radioactive labeling of the probes indicate that the probes are specific for BP DNA, while the results obtained from the three non-radioactive labeling systems suggest problems with non-specific reactivity and sample preparation for these methods. The results also indicated that in situ hybridization is presently the optimum assaying system for BP gene probes. The BP gene probes were used with an in situ hybridization assay to gather initial data concerning the mode of transmission for BP.

<p> Pupil size is controlled by the autonomic nervous system, and iris behavior reflects a balance of input from both the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. The pupillary light reflex (PLR) occurs in response to light entering the eye and requires functional integrity of the retina and specific nuclei of the midbrain. Recently, pupillography or quantitative analysis of the PLR has been developed as a non-invasive, objective technique capable of detecting subtle changes associated with the complex network of neuronal circuitry involved in modulating pupil size. This makes the PLR a useful biomarker that can be used to monitor disease progression in neurological disorders. </p><p> The neuronal ceroid lipofuscinoses (NCLs) are a group of lysosomal storage disorders that are inherited in an autosomal recessive manner. A late-infantile onset form of NCL (CLN2) is caused by a mutation in the <i>CLN2</i> gene which codes for tripeptidyl peptidase-1 (TPP1), a soluble, lysosomal enzyme that aids degradation of peptides in cells throughout the body. A Dachshund model of CLN2 was developed and is currently being maintained at the University of Missouri. Dogs affected by CLN2 lack functional TPP1 and present with progressive ataxia, cognitive and behavioral changes, and myoclonic seizures starting at approximately 7-8 months of age and progressing to a terminal state requiring euthanasia at 10 to 11 months of age. In addition, affected dogs exhibit vision loss and marked deficits in ERG b-wave amplitude and significant thinning of the inner retina by disease end-stage. The strong resemblance to the human CLN2 makes these dogs an excellent model in which to test possible treatment options prior to beginning human clinical trials.</p><p> In the effort to make optimal use of the canine model of CLN2, studies were undertaken to develop a reliable protocol for the quantitative assessment of the canine PLR. Using the developed equipment and methodology, we thoroughly evaluated the PLR in response to short flashes of white light of increasing intensity in normal and CLN2-affected dogs. We found that CLN2-affected dogs exhibit PLR deficits that progress with age and other symptoms of disease. Deficits are particularly apparent with dim stimuli and likely result from a combination of decline in retinal function and disease related changes in areas of the midbrain involved in modulating the PLR.</p><p> In the Dachshund CLN2 disease model, it was previously shown that administration of recombinant TPP1 via infusion into the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) results in widespread distribution and uptake of the active enzyme into many structures of the brain and in reduction in the accumulation of neuronal lysosomal storage material that is characteristic of this disease. Studies were undertaken to determine if TPP1 enzyme replacement therapy (ERT) could ameliorate PLR deficits associated with CLN2. One-third of the dogs treated with ERT exhibited a substantial delay in the appearance of PLR deficits compared with untreated, affected dogs. However, no improvements in retinal function could be measured by the ERG. It is unlikely that TPP1 reached the retina, and it is more likely that ERT normalized the PLR by preventing degeneration in areas of the midbrain involved in modulating the PLR. However, further analysis of retinal and midbrain tissues is necessary to fully explain these treatment effects.</p><p> The characterization of disease-related alterations in light induced responses contributes to our understanding of the pathology underlying CLN2. Preventing development of the deficits in the PLR and ERG responses can be used to objectively assess the efficacy of therapeutic interventions for CLN2 that are currently being evaluated. An ideal therapy would prevent the declines in both the PLR and the ERG responses by preventing both retina and brain degeneration.</p><p>