Emerging small-scale pig farmers in Limpopo province perceive pig production and management as an important means of improving their livelihood and alternative investment option for the future. Their performance has not been optimal due to the lack of practical understanding of the basics of animal production, biosecurity and efficient production system. Thus, an attempt was made to evaluate the challenges and constrains of pig farm production systems identified and reported by emerging small scale pig farmers (ESSPF) in the province. In addition, the risk factors associated with pig movement by ESSPF by means of spatio-temporal analysis was evaluated. The study revealed that the average number of sows/farm was 7.4, while the number of boars/farm was 1.7. On average, the number of days that the sows take to return to oestrus from weaning was 42.9 days while the number of piglet s weaned/sow/year was 4.85 pigs. Also the study showed that 98.77% of ESSPF don t vaccinate their breeding stock against major pig diseases and only 2.47% ESSPF farmers had previously benefited from the infrastructure programme of the department referred to as Comprehensive Agricultural Support Programme (CASP). The majority of the respondents (82.61%) will prefer to sell their pigs at local points and within communities and only 9.32% and 14.09% will sell at the auctions or formal abattoir/supermarkets respectively. It is therefore recommended CASP be evaluated to reach and impact more pig farmers positively. Good animal husbandry and transfer of knowledge by the veterinary officials is central to the growth of farmers and their productivity. The provision of regional slaughter facilities will reduce the travelling costs to Bronkhorstspruit and Belfast, but also reduce the likelihood of the disease spread within or outside the province. The involvement of different stakeholders should be encouraged to ensure ESSPF are trained, mentored, coached, with the aim of improving their livelihood, food security and safety. / Limpopo provinsie is n belangrike vark produseerende gebied met n groot populasie van huishoudelike en wilde diere. Om die rede dien dit as n interfase tussen huishoudelike diere, mense en wilde diere.Alhoewel opkomende varkboere in die provinsie die produksie en bestuur as n belangrike verbetering in hul lewensbestaan asook alternatiewe finansiële beleggingsopsies vir die toekoms beskou, is hul prestasie nie optimaal nie as gevolg van die gebrek aan praktiese begrip van die basiese beginsels van diereproduksie, biosekuriteit en doeltreffende produksie stelsels. Dus, is 'n poging aangewend om die uitdagings en beperkings van varkplaas produksiestelsels te ïdentifiseer en die opkomende kleinskaalse varkboere (ESSPF) in die provinsie te evalueer. Bykomend is die risikofaktore wat verband hou met vark beweging deur ESSPF deur middel van tydruimtelike analise ontleed. Die studie het getoon dat die gemiddelde aantal sôe per plaas was 7,4 terwyl die aantal bere per plaas 1,7 was. Die sôe neem gemiddeld 42,9 dae om terug te keer na estrus vanaf speen, terwyl die aantal varkies gespeen / sog / jaar is 4,85 varkies. Die studie het ook getoon dat 98,77% van ESSPF nie hul teeldiere ent teen die hoof vark siektes en slegs 2,47% ESSPF boere het voorheen voordeel getrek uit die program infrastruktuur van die departement verwys na as omvattende landbou?ondersteuningsprogram (CASP). Die meerderheid van die respondente (82,61%) verkies om hul varke by plaaslike punte binne gemeenskappe te verkoop en slegs 9,32% en 14,09% onderskeidelik verkoop by veilings of formele slagpale/ supermarkte. Dit word dus aanbeveel dat CASP herevalueer om n positiewe impak te bereik by meer varkboere. Goeie veeteelt en die oordrag van kennis deur die veeartseny?amptenare is sentraal tot die groei van die boere en hul produktiwiteit. Die voorsiening van plaaslike slaggeriewe sal die reiskoste na Bronkhorstspruit en Belfast (beide buite die provinsie en tans gekiesde slagpale van die ESSPF) verminder, maar ook die waarskynlikheid van die verspreiding van siektes binne of buite die provinsie verminder. Die betrokkenheid van die verskillende belanghebbendes moet aangemoedig word om te verseker ESSPF opgelei word, gementor, afgerig, met die doel om van die verbetering van hul lewensbestaan, voedselsekuriteit en veiligheid. / Dissertation (MMedVet)--University of Pretoria, 2015. / tm2016 / Production Animal Studies / MMedVet

Small stock farming and production accounted for approximately 8.4% of total animal product based agricultural output in the 2011 / 2012 season in South Africa. Large scale commercial farming aside, small stock farming also takes on an important role in poorer and developing rural areas of South Africa, where small stock are kept for a combination of economic and non-economic reasons including financial investment or security, food and resource production, as well as religious or traditional reasons. Blowflies are Dipterids with complex life cycles and complete metamorphoses, causing damage to hides and frequent death in their ovine hosts, as a result of cutaneous myiasis caused by the larval stages. All economically important blowfly species causing veterinary myiasis belong to the superfamily Oestroidea, which contains the three major families Oestridae, Calliphoridae and Sarcophidae. The two most significant blowfly genera in South Africa, Lucillia and Chrysomya, both belong to the family Calliphoridae. Chemical means of preventing and treating blowfly strike by topical application remains the most widely used method and appears to be indispensable at this stage. New molecules or formulations effective against blowfly strike are constantly being sought and form part of an active field of research. Bayer currently manufactures and markets Drastic Deadline Extreme ®, a pour-on formulation containing flumethrin and fluazuron for the control of blue ticks (Rhipicephalus decoloratus) in cattle; its possible action against blowflies in sheep was investigated in an in-vitro model, subsequent to a pilot pharmacokinetic study evaluating the kinetics of fluazuron when applied topically to sheep in this particular combination. The first objective of the project was to determine whether fluazuron has any effect at all on the development of blowfly larvae. An active ingredient from the same family of compounds, namely triflumeron, has been successfully used for several years to control blowfly strike in sheep in South Africa (Zapp ® Pour on - Bayer), but it was uncertain whether or not fluazuron would be effective. Raw fluazuron was applied to six pieces of beef according to a dose calculation based on the registered dose of the test product in cattle, while another six pieces were treated with saline in a similar fashion (n=6). Each piece of beef was placed in its own container along with six late instar larvae and placed in the incubator at 35°C for a further nine days. In this instance, the treated group demonstrated significant development defects with regard to pupation (uneclosed pupae) when analysed using the Mann-Whitney non-parametric t-test (p = 0.002). / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2016. / Paraclinical Sciences / MSc / Unrestricted

Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC) is a food pathogen causing infections characterised by mild watery to severe bloody diarrhea and complications such as the hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS). Humans acquire STEC through consumption of contaminated foods of animal origin, vegetables and water. Cattle are the main reservoir of STEC. The severity of STEC infections in humans depends on a number of virulence factors encoded in the bacterium’s genome. The seven major STEC serogroups most frequently incriminated in severe human disease outbreaks and HUS worldwide include O157, O45, O103, O111, O121, O145 and, O26, commonly referred to as the "top/big seven". Although STEC has been incriminated in human disease in South Africa, data on the role of played by cattle in human disease and virulence characteristics of cattle STEC are lacking. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to (i) investigate the presence of the seven major STEC serotypes in healthy beef cattle (cow-calf operations) and (ii) characterise isolates by serotype, virulence genes and markers, and antimicrobial resistance profiles. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was carried out to identify STEC serotypes (O and H antigens) and characterize the isolates by virulence factors and markers. The disk diffusion technique (Kirby Bauer test) was used to determine the antimicrobial resistance profiles of STEC isolates against a panel of 15 antimicrobials. Five hundred and seventy-eight STEC isolates (N=578), which had been previously recovered from 559 cattle from five beef farms were screened for STEC O26, O45, O103, O111, O121, O145 and O157. Confirmed STEC belonging to serogroups O26, O45, O103, O111, O121, O145 and O157 to isolates were characterised for major virulence genes including stx1, stx2, eaeA and ehxA. Furthermore, 140 isolates were characterised for xiii Shiga toxins (stx) subtypes, plasmid and pathogenicity island-encoded genes, and antimicrobials resistance profiles. / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2017. / Paraclinical Sciences / MSc / Unrestricted

This study evaluated eighteen commercial farms within Gauteng, Northwest and Limpopo provinces, where a representative sample of grow-out fish from each farm, was humanely euthanased, weighed, measured, and each fish’s overall health assessed through microscopic examination of skin and gills. A full necropsy and histo-pathological evaluation of all key organs followed. Farm production parameters were assessed by means of a questionnaire with a detailed history and a comprehensive water analysis that included water temperature, dissolved oxygen, CO2, ammonia, nitrite, nitrate, pH, hardness and alkalinity. These production parameters, together with stocking density and underlying nutrition, were compared with the macro- and microscopic findings for positive and negative correlations / relationships. Significantly high burdens of ecto-parasites and very poor water quality, with compromisingly low dissolved oxygen and temperatures, and high carbon dioxide and nitrite, were found in association with severe gill pathology. This was compounded by inadequate filtration for the density of fish stocked, with resultant toxic nitrogenous waste accumulation. Other key abnormalities observed were chronic-active hepatic lipid oxidation, low hepatocellular lipid, evidence of secondary opportunistic infectious disease, and extremely poor growth. Poor farm management practises were prevalent, with evidence of uneconomical fish sex ratios, and poor implementation of biosecurity and disease management. The study serves to highlight the factors that currently dominate as critical issues affecting overall health and growth of aqua-cultured tilapia in the South African context. / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2019. / TM2019 / Paraclinical Sciences / MSc / Unrestricted

Brucellosis is an economically important bacterial disease of both animals and humans. In sub-Saharan Africa, the diagnosis of the disease remains a challenge. Brucellosis is underreported in South Africa, due to inconsistency in reports of bacteriological and serological tests, which lack adequate sensitivity and specificity in the diagnosis of the disease. They also are ineffective in confirming brucellosis during early stages of the disease. The aim of this study was to develop a 16S-23S ribosomal deoxyribonucleic acid (rDNA) internal transcribed spacer (ITS) quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) assay for early diagnosis of brucellosis and as a rapid screening tool. To achieve this, blood, milk and tissue samples were spiked with B. abortus biovar (bv.) 1 (B01988-18 strain) to determine the analytical sensitivity and specificity of the assay. The efficiency was 105% in tissue, 99% in blood, and 93% in milk. The 95% limit of detection (LOD) of the ITS qPCR assay was highest in tissue, followed by blood, then milk; thus (1.45, 13.30 and 45.54 bacterial genome copies/PCR reaction). Furthermore, the diagnostic performance of the assay was compared to the Brucella cell surface protein real time polymerase chain reaction (BCSP31 qPCR) assay. Out of 56 aborted foetal tissue samples from bovine, ovine and caprine, 33% (19/56) were positive for Brucella spp. The sensitivity and specificity of the ITS qPCR assay were 87% and 95% respectively, compared to the 92% and 89% for the BCSP31 qPCR assay and 47% and 55% for bacterial culture, respectively. The ITS qPCR gave earlier CT’s with a difference in CT (ΔCT) between ITS and BCSP31 ranging between 7.1 and 3.24. The assay was efficient, sensitive and specific. It detected as little as 1.45 bacterial genome copies/PCR reaction in tissue, making this assay a valuable tool in early detection of the presence of the Brucella pathogen. It is sensitive and specific in the diagnosis of brucellosis. / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2019. / Veterinary Tropical Diseases / MSc / Unrestricted

Increased prevalence of antimicrobial resistance, treatment failure, and financial losses have been reported in dairy cattle with coagulase-negative Staphylococcus (CoNS) clinical mastitis. However, studies on CoNS are limited in South Africa. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to investigate the antimicrobial resistance patterns and biofilm formation in CoNS isolated from cow milk samples submitted to the Onderstepoort Milk Laboratory. A total of 142 confirmed CoNS isolates were used for this study. Isolates were subjected to the tissue culture plate method for biofilm formation testing and antimicrobial susceptibility testing against a panel of 11 antimicrobials using the disk diffusion method. Biofilm formation was identified in 18% of CoNS tested. Staphylococcus chromogenes (11%) had the highest proportion of biofilm formation followed by S. haemolyticus 4.0% and S. epidermidis, S. hominis, S. xylosus, and S. simulans with 1% respectively. Ninety percent (90%) of CoNS isolates were resistant to at least one antimicrobial (AMR) and 51% were multidrug-resistant (MDR). Resistance among CoNS was the highest to ampicillin (90%) and penicillin (89%), with few isolates resistant to cefoxitin and vancomycin, 9% respectively. The most common resistance patterns among the CoNS was penicillin-ampicillin (16%) and penicillin-ampicillin-erythromycin (10%). Forty-two percent (42%) of biofilm positive CoNS were MDR. At the species level, MDR was common among S. epidermis (65%), S. chromogenes (52%) and S. haemolyticus (44%). In conclusion, biofilm formation was uncommon among the MDR-CoNS isolates in this study suggesting that biofilm formation is not a major contributing factor to antimicrobial resistance in this study. In addition, most CoNS isolates in this study were _-lactams resistant. This is concerning as penicillins are used commonly by dairy farmers in treatment of mastitis in South Africa. Nonetheless, the role of antimicrobial use practice in the development of resistance in subclinical mastitis in the dairy industry should be investigated. / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2019. / Paraclinical Sciences / MSc / Unrestricted

Vermeersiekte or ‘vomiting disease’ is an economically important disease of ruminants following ingestion of Geigeria species in South Africa. Sheep are more susceptible and poisoning is characterised by stiffness, regurgitation, bloat, paresis and paralysis. Geigeria aspera was collected in the Vrede district (27° 25′ 48″ S; 29° 9′ 36″ E), Free State Province. The plant material was dried, milled and the toxic principles, known as sesquiterpene lactones, were extracted and isolated following chromatographic procedures. Even though geigerin and ivalin were previously isolated, an unknown sesquiterpene lactone, isogeigerin acetate, was also purified. Mouse myoblast (C2C12) and rat embryonic cardiac myocyte (H9c2) cell lines were exposed to different concentrations of geigerin, ivalin, isogeigerin acetate and a commercially available sesquiterpene lactone, parthenolide. An in vitro colorimetric assay 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) was used to assess cytotoxicity. The median effective concentrations (EC50) indicated that ivalin and parthenolide were significantly (p<0.05) more toxic than geigerin and isogeigerin acetate. A concentration-dependent cytotoxic response was observed in both cell lines, however, C2C12 cells were more sensitive. A high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis was used to evaluate the in vitro metabolism of parthenolide, following the addition of a mouse liver microsomal fraction. Results revealed that parthenolide, incubated with the microsomal fraction, undergoes enzymatic transformation to form a metabolite. / Dissertation (MSc (Veterinary Sciences))--University of Pretoria, 2020. / pt2021 / Paraclinical Sciences / MSc (Veterinary Sciences) / Unrestricted

Access to international and regional markets for beef has been an on-going problem for southern African countries for many decades because the South African Territories (SAT) serotypes of foot and mouth disease (FMD) viruses are endemic to wildlife populations in the southern African region. This makes establishment of FMD-free zones, essential for accessing high-value beef markets difficult, expensive and impractical for many locations in southern Africa. For that reason commercialization of livestock production in the region has been inhibited. The creation of FMD-free zones which requires use of artificial or natural boundaries and in southern Africa it has been the construction of veterinary cordon fences (VCFs) to separate animal populations of different FMD status which has proven successful in some countries (such as Botswana, Namibia & South Africa) but not in others for a variety of reasons, i.e. the current model has only been possible for a small proportion of cattle producers in southern Africa. This means that apart from the damaging effects that some VCFs have had or have on the environment generally and wildlife conservation in particular, only roughly 15% of the cattle population in the mainland countries of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) are raised in FMD-free zones. For balanced rural development of the SADC Region, where cattle are culturally and economically vital to the indigenous inhabitants and wildlife conservation and associated economic activities are important contributors to regional gross domestic product, it is essential to improve access to regional and international markets for beef and other animal products produced in locations outside FMD-free zones. The World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) has introduced a partially non-geographic FMD standard for trade in deboned beef (viz. Terrestrial Animal Health Code Article 8.8.22) that potentially overcomes this problem; however, Article 8.8.22 contains at least one killer requirement that makes its implementation impossible. The issues associated with this problem have been identified in this study and possible solutions proposed. An attempt was made to gauge acceptance by SADC Member States but the responses to the questionnaire used were inadequate to reach a reliable conclusion in this respect. It was concluded that taking technical, logistical and financial constraints into account, non-geographic approaches represent the best opportunity that SADC countries have of expanding access to regional and international markets. Moreover, it is suggested that non-geographic approaches could be integrated into the Standard Methods and Procedures in Animal Health (SMP-AH) Programme once adopted by SADC, thereby strengthening the capacity of the Region s competent authorities. SMP-AH Programme is at a proposal stage and has not been officially launched in SADC. The SMP AH Programme proposes to harmonize activities of animal health authorities of SADC Member States in respect of selected diseases that impact trade and/or human health. / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2015. / tm2016 / Veterinary Tropical Diseases / MSc