The thesis represents the research in the domain of modern video tracking systems and presents the details of the implementation of such a system. Video surveillance is a high point of interest and it relies on robust systems that interconnect several critical modules: data acquisition, data processing, background modeling, foreground detection and multiple object tracking. The present work analyzes different state of the art methods that are suitable for each module. The emphasis of the thesis is on the background subtraction stage, as the final accuracy and performance of the person tracking dramatically dependent on it. The experimental results show the performance of four different foreground detection algorithms, including two variations of self-organizing feature maps for background modeling, a machine learning technique. The undertaken work provides a comprehensive view of the actual state of the research in the foreground detection field and multiple object tracking and offers solution for common problems that occur when tracking in complex scenes. The chosen data set for experiments covers extremely different and complex scenes (outdoor environments) that allow a detailed study of the appropriate approaches and emphasize the weaknesses and strengths of each algorithm. The proposed system handles problems like: dynamic backgrounds, illumination changes, camouflage, cast shadows, frequent occlusions and crowded scenes. The tracking obtains a maximum Multiple Object Tracking Accuracy of 92,5% for the standard video sequence MWT and a minimum of 32,3% for an extremely difficult sequence that challenges every method.

Tracker-level fusion for video tracking combines outputs (state estimations) from multiple trackers, to address the shortcomings of individual trackers. Furthermore, performance evaluation of trackers at run time (online) can determine low performing trackers that can be removed from the fusion. This thesis presents a tracker-level fusion framework that performs online tracking performance evaluation for fusion. We first introduce a method to determine time instants of tracker failure that is divided into two steps. First, we evaluate tracking performance by comparing the distributions of the tracker state and a region around the state. We use Distribution Fields to generate the distributions of both regions and compute a tracking performance score by comparing the distributions using the L1 distance. Then, we model this score as a time series and employ the Auto Regressive Moving Average method to forecast future values of the performance score. A difference between the original and forecast returns the forecast error signal that we use to detect tracking failure. We test the method with different datasets and then demonstrate its flexibility using tracking results and sequences from the Visual Object Tracking (VOT) challenge. The second part presents a tracker-level fusion method that combines the outputs of multiple trackers. The method is divided into three steps. First, we group trackers into clusters based on the spatio-temporal pair-wise relationships of their outputs. Then, we evaluate tracking performance based on reverse-time analysis with an adaptive reference frame and define the cluster with trackers that appear to be successfully following the target as the on-target cluster. Finally, we fuse the outputs of the trackers in the on-target cluster to obtain the final target state. The fusion approach uses standard tracker outputs and can therefore combine various types of trackers. We test the method with several combinations of state-of-the-art trackers, and also compare it with individual trackers and other fusion approaches.

Les PCB (polychlorobiphényles) sont des molécules connues pour leur longue demi-vie et leur forte liposolubilité qui conduisent à une bioaccumulation et une bioamplification dans les réseaux trophiques, menant à un potentiel risque pour les prédateurs de haut niveau tel que l’Homme. De plus, il a été démontré que leur affinité avec les composés lipidiques conduisaient à une transmission de la femelle à l’œuf chez les poissons. Dans ce contexte, et comme d’autres travaux ont déjà montré des effets des PCB sur la physiologie et le comportement d’animaux contaminés de différentes façons, nous avons observé les effets de ces molécules chez deux espèces, la sole commune et le poisson zèbre. La contamination a été réalisée via l’alimentation avec deux mélanges de PCB et deux concentrations qui correspondent à des situations environnementales, en termes de dose ou de choix et de proportion des congénères retenus. La dose la plus haute est équivalente à celle mesurée dans de la chair de molusques en baie de Seine et la dose intermédiaire à celle mesurée en estuaire de Loire. Les soles contaminées ont montré une diminution du niveau d’activité locomoteur après 30 jours (j) de contamination et une altération des capacités cryptiques après 60 j de contamination. Les poissons zèbre contaminés ont montré une augmentation de l’activité locomotrice après 250 j de contamination. La génération issue de cette génération de poisson zèbre contaminée a elle aussi montré une augmentation de l’activité locomotrice au stade larvaire et adulte. Chez les adultes, cela s’est traduit par une diminution de l’utilisation de la zone de fond des bacs et une augmentation du nombre de transition de zones, ce qui s’explique par une perte d’inhibition comportementale. Dans les deux cas, les phénotypes comportementaux observés chez les groupes PCB sont associés à une altération de la locomotion dans le sens d’une baisse d’activité pour une espèce placide comme la sole et dans le sens de l’augmentation pour une espèce mobile comme le poisson zèbre. / Because of their long biological half-life and high liposolubility, PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls) are bioaccumulated and biomagnified through food chains over a wide range of trophic levels, leading to a potential risk for high trophic level predators including humans. Further, due to their binding with lipids, a demonstrated maternal transfer to eggs exists in fish. In this context, and since field analyses and experimental exposures have established links between PCBs exposure and alterations in physiology and behaviour of contaminated animals, we have examined the effects in both common sole and zebrafish species exposed through diets to two PCBs mixtures at two doses mimicking known environmental contamination levels and congener composition. The highest dose was equivalent to that found in molluscs flesh in the Seine Estuary and the intermediate dose was equivalent to that found in the Loire estuary. Contaminated soles showed a decreased locomotor activity level after 30 days (d) of contamination and altered cryptic abilities after 60 d of contamination. Contaminated zebrafish showed an increased locomotor activity level after 250 d of contamination. The offspring obtained from this contaminated generation of zebrafish showed an increase in swimming activity in larvae which was maintained in adults. In adults, this was associated with a decrease in tank bottom section occupancy and with an increase in the number of zone transition which may be due to a loosening of homebase behaviour and/or a loss of behavioural inhibition. In both cases, behavioural phenotypes observed in PCBs groups can be related to a disruption in locomotion activity towards decreased levels for a placid species like common sole and increased levels for a mobile species like zebrafish.

Ao observarmos uma trilha de forrageamento de formigas saúvas parece bastante claro que ela consiste no tráfego de muitos indivíduos que buscam alimento numa mesma fonte e o trazem para a colônia. No entanto, a organização presente numa trilha vai muito além do fato de que formigas operárias transportam folhas para o ninho. Desde os mecanismos de formação e manutenção de trilhas baseados no recrutamento e em retroalimentação positiva da marcação feromonal, até a forma com que formigas de tamanhos diferentes se dividem entre as tarefas de corte, transporte e patrulhamento, as trilhas de forrageamento exibem uma organização muito sofisticada, que reflete a complexidade característica dos de organismos eussociais. Neste cenário, é particularmente desafiador identificar a relação entre os comportamentos individuais, característicos de formigas de um dado morfotipo, e os padrões globais coletivos observados na colônia, como por exemplo, o padrão temporal da atividade de forrageamento. No caso de formigas Atta sexdens, apesar de ser reconhecida a importância do polimorfismo na divisão de tarefas, não foi investigado o seu papel na determinação do padrão temporal com que as tarefas são realizadas. Esta questão é especialmente interessante no caso das trilhas, sob a perspectiva de que soldados, que são formigas maiores, desempenham uma tarefa cuja demanda temporal é constante, e que formigas de tamanhos intermediários são responsáveis pelo forrageamento, realizado em horários preferenciais. Para avaliar se formigas de tamanhos diferentes diferem quanto a suas respectivas distribuições temporais de atividade nas trilhas, o presente trabalho gravou em vídeo por alguns dias uma trilha de forrageamento de uma colônia mantida em laboratório em condições controladas de fotoperíodo. Através da análise computacional dos vídeos, foi possível contar os indivíduos e medir o tamanho de cada uma das formigas gravadas. Os seguintes resultados foram observados: (i) a atividade é mais intensa durante a fase fase escura do que durante a clara; (ii) a intensidade da atividade não é temporalmente uniforme dentro das fases, apresentando transientes relacionados à antecipação da transições entre fases, apesar da ausência de crepúsculo; (iii) formigas de tamanhos diferentes distinguem-se quanto as suas distribuições temporais de atividade, ainda que não forma esperada expressa anteriormente; (iv) uma consequência global deste fato pode ser observada na variação do tamanho médio de formigas ao longo do experimento. As diferenças observadas no padrão temporal de atividade de formigas de tamanhos diferentes podem ser decorrentes de mecanismos endógenos de ritmicidade, e ou de mecanismos comportamentais de divisão de tarefas baseado em diferenças entre limiares para respostas / When we look at a leaf-cutting ant foraging trail it seems quite clear that it consists on the traffic of many individuals collecting food from a same source and bringing it to the colonies nest. However, the foraging trail organization goes much beyond the fact that worker ants transport leaves to the nest. From the trail formation and maintenance mechanisms, based in recruitment and in pheromone marking positive feedback, to how workers of different size divide themselves among cutting, transporting and patrolling, the foraging trail presents a sophisticated organization, reflecting the typical complexity of eusocial organisms. In this condition, it\'s particularly challenging to identify the relationship between individual behaviours, particular of ants of a given morphotype, and the global, collective patterns, observed in the colony, for example, the foraging temporal pattern. In the case of Atta sexdens, despite the widely known importance of polymorphism in division of labour, its role in determining the temporal activity patterns has not been investigated. It\'s a matter of major interest in foraging trails, considered the perspective that soldiers, which are big ants patrolling trails, perform a task whose demand is time constant, at least in non adverse conditions, while medias are largely responsible for foraging, which has preferential time for performance. In order to access if different size worker ants distinguish among their respective temporal activity patterns in trails, in this work we recorded a laboratory captive colony foraging trail, under a set photoperiod, and controlled temperature. By computational video analysis, we could count the ants and measure each of them. The following results may be highlighted : (I) trail activity is more intense during darkness than during light; (ii) activity intensity within each phase is not uniform in time, showing phase anticipation related transients, despite the absence of twilight; (iii) ants of different size distinguish among their temporal activity distributions, although not as the previously stated expectations; (iv) a global consequence of this may be seen in the mean ant size variation observed throughout the experiment. The differences of temporal activity patterns among ants of different size may result from endogenous rhythm mechanisms, and or from behavioural mechanisms of division of labour based in differential response thresholds

Ao observarmos uma trilha de forrageamento de formigas saúvas parece bastante claro que ela consiste no tráfego de muitos indivíduos que buscam alimento numa mesma fonte e o trazem para a colônia. No entanto, a organização presente numa trilha vai muito além do fato de que formigas operárias transportam folhas para o ninho. Desde os mecanismos de formação e manutenção de trilhas baseados no recrutamento e em retroalimentação positiva da marcação feromonal, até a forma com que formigas de tamanhos diferentes se dividem entre as tarefas de corte, transporte e patrulhamento, as trilhas de forrageamento exibem uma organização muito sofisticada, que reflete a complexidade característica dos de organismos eussociais. Neste cenário, é particularmente desafiador identificar a relação entre os comportamentos individuais, característicos de formigas de um dado morfotipo, e os padrões globais coletivos observados na colônia, como por exemplo, o padrão temporal da atividade de forrageamento. No caso de formigas Atta sexdens, apesar de ser reconhecida a importância do polimorfismo na divisão de tarefas, não foi investigado o seu papel na determinação do padrão temporal com que as tarefas são realizadas. Esta questão é especialmente interessante no caso das trilhas, sob a perspectiva de que soldados, que são formigas maiores, desempenham uma tarefa cuja demanda temporal é constante, e que formigas de tamanhos intermediários são responsáveis pelo forrageamento, realizado em horários preferenciais. Para avaliar se formigas de tamanhos diferentes diferem quanto a suas respectivas distribuições temporais de atividade nas trilhas, o presente trabalho gravou em vídeo por alguns dias uma trilha de forrageamento de uma colônia mantida em laboratório em condições controladas de fotoperíodo. Através da análise computacional dos vídeos, foi possível contar os indivíduos e medir o tamanho de cada uma das formigas gravadas. Os seguintes resultados foram observados: (i) a atividade é mais intensa durante a fase fase escura do que durante a clara; (ii) a intensidade da atividade não é temporalmente uniforme dentro das fases, apresentando transientes relacionados à antecipação da transições entre fases, apesar da ausência de crepúsculo; (iii) formigas de tamanhos diferentes distinguem-se quanto as suas distribuições temporais de atividade, ainda que não forma esperada expressa anteriormente; (iv) uma consequência global deste fato pode ser observada na variação do tamanho médio de formigas ao longo do experimento. As diferenças observadas no padrão temporal de atividade de formigas de tamanhos diferentes podem ser decorrentes de mecanismos endógenos de ritmicidade, e ou de mecanismos comportamentais de divisão de tarefas baseado em diferenças entre limiares para respostas / When we look at a leaf-cutting ant foraging trail it seems quite clear that it consists on the traffic of many individuals collecting food from a same source and bringing it to the colonies nest. However, the foraging trail organization goes much beyond the fact that worker ants transport leaves to the nest. From the trail formation and maintenance mechanisms, based in recruitment and in pheromone marking positive feedback, to how workers of different size divide themselves among cutting, transporting and patrolling, the foraging trail presents a sophisticated organization, reflecting the typical complexity of eusocial organisms. In this condition, it\'s particularly challenging to identify the relationship between individual behaviours, particular of ants of a given morphotype, and the global, collective patterns, observed in the colony, for example, the foraging temporal pattern. In the case of Atta sexdens, despite the widely known importance of polymorphism in division of labour, its role in determining the temporal activity patterns has not been investigated. It\'s a matter of major interest in foraging trails, considered the perspective that soldiers, which are big ants patrolling trails, perform a task whose demand is time constant, at least in non adverse conditions, while medias are largely responsible for foraging, which has preferential time for performance. In order to access if different size worker ants distinguish among their respective temporal activity patterns in trails, in this work we recorded a laboratory captive colony foraging trail, under a set photoperiod, and controlled temperature. By computational video analysis, we could count the ants and measure each of them. The following results may be highlighted : (I) trail activity is more intense during darkness than during light; (ii) activity intensity within each phase is not uniform in time, showing phase anticipation related transients, despite the absence of twilight; (iii) ants of different size distinguish among their temporal activity distributions, although not as the previously stated expectations; (iv) a global consequence of this may be seen in the mean ant size variation observed throughout the experiment. The differences of temporal activity patterns among ants of different size may result from endogenous rhythm mechanisms, and or from behavioural mechanisms of division of labour based in differential response thresholds

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2015. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: There are several ports around the world currently experiencing problems with moored vessel motions. Extreme vessel motions are mainly caused by long waves, which can become trapped inside a harbour basin. The extreme motions can cause downtime in port operations and in some instances cause mooring lines to break. Methods and procedures currently available to measure motions of moored vessels require vessel specific information as input. The implementation of these methods is seen as impractical to implement on every vessel visiting the port and require the physical measurement of some points on the vessel and/or the placement of some kind of measurement device on the vessel. A new Six Degree of Freedom (6DOF) motion measurement system for a moored vessel is presented in this document. The system analyses a video image sequence from one camera. The method estimates the 3D rigid motion for an object of known size by using a Pose from Orthography and Scaling with ITerations (POSIT) algorithm. The object for which the motion is estimated is located on the deck of the vessel and within the camera field of view. Geometric rigid body calculations allow for the calculation of camera perspective rotations and translation of an object on the vessel. Further geometric calculations allow for converting camera perspective motions to the 6DOF object motions. The primary objective of this study was to validate and verify the motions obtained from two proof-of-concept tracking systems. For evaluation purposes, the validation was done by using a small scale physical model set-up in a hydraulics laboratory and using a known method as reference. The Keoship system from the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) is currently one of the most accurate small scale vessel motion measurement systems and was used as reference. The first method tested was the tracking of a 2D LED rectangle mounted on the vessel. This method tracked a 2D object and was primarily used as a stepping stone to measure movement of a 3D object. The second method tracked a 3D object on the vessel. Each tracking method was tested for four different wave conditions with each condition additionally repeated twice as repeatability tests, resulting in a total of 12 tests for each tracking method. When comparing the 2D LED tracking and 3D Object tracking data to data measured with the Keoship system, results show that in general, the 3D Object tracking data compared better to the Keoship data. Tests under controlled conditions enabled a direct estimation of the absolute accuracy of the two developed methods. The verification and accuracy test results, indicated that the 2D LED tracking system should not be pursued further. The results also indicated that for prototype motions exceeding 0.6 m (i.e. storm events) the 3D Object tracking system would have an accuracy close to the maximum allowable accuracy criterion of 0.1 m. This makes the system viable at its current proof-of-concept stage for further development which would enable rapid deployment during a storm event in a prototype situation. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Daar is verskeie hawens regoor die wêreld wat tans bewegings probleme op gemeerde skepe ervaar. Hierdie buitensporige bewegings word veroorsaak deur lang periode golwe wat binne die hawe bekkens vasgekeer word. Dit kan daartoe lei dat hawe bedrywighede tot stilstand kom en in ernstige gevalle ook veroorsaak dat meringslyne breek. Huidige metodes vir die meet van skeepsbewegings op vasgemeerde skepe, vereis skeep spesifieke inligting as inset. Die toepassing van hierdie metodes op elke skip wat die hawe besoek, word as onprakties beskou, aangesien dit die fisiese meting van sekere punte op die skip behels. In sekere gevalle is dit selfs nodig om meet toestelle op die skip te plaas. In hierdie dokument word ‘n nuwe metode aangebied om die ses grade van vryheid bewegings vir ‘n vasgemeerde skip te meet. Hierdie stelsel analiseer ‘n video beeld reeks van een kamera. Die metode bereken die 3D rigiede beweging van ‘n voorwerp, waarvan die grootte bekend is. ’n ‘Pose from Orthography and scaling with Iterations’ (POSIT) algoritme word hiervoor gebruik. Die voorwerp waarvoor beweging gemeet word is op die dek van die skip en in kamera sig. Rigiede geometriese voorwerp berekeninge word gebruik om die rotasie en translasie vanuit ‘n kamera perspektief te bereken. Verdere geometriese berekeninge maak dit moontlik om die bewegings vanuit die kamera perspektief te omskep in die ses grade van vryheid bewegings van die voorwerp. Die hoof doelwit van hierdie ondersoek was om die gemete bewegings van twee beweging stelsels te valideer en te verifieer. Die validasie en verifiëring was in ‘n hidrolise laboratorium met ‘n klein skaal model opstelling getoets. ‘n Meet metode van skeepsbeweging op klein skaal wat reeds bekend is, is gebruik as ‘n verwysingsraamwerk waarteen die metings vergelyk kan word. Die Keoship stelsel van die Wetenskaplike Nywerheids Navorsings Raad (WNNR) is tans een van die mees akkurate klein skaal skeepsbeweging meet stelsels, en was as verwysing gebruik. Die eerste bewegings metode is getoets op ‘n 2D reghoek vervaaridig uit ligstralede diodes. Hierdie metode het die 2D voorwerp gevolg en is hoofsaaklik gebruik as ‘n boublok om die beweging van ‘n 3D voorwerp te volg. Die tweede metode het die beweging van ‘n 3D voorwerp op ‘n skip gevolg. Vir elke meet metode was daar vier verskillende golf toestande. Elke golf toestand was ook ‘n verdere twee keer herhaal vir herhaalbaarheids doeleindes. Saam met die herhaalbaarheids toetse was daar in totaal, 12 toetse vir elkeen van die twee metodes gedoen. Met die Keoship metode as verwysing, bewys hierdie toetse dat die 3D metode beter resultate lewer as die 2D metode. Toetse onder beheerde toestande, het dit moontlik gemaak om die absolute akkuraatheid van albei sisteme wat ontwikkel was, te evalueer. Verifikasie en akuraatheids toetse het aangedui dat verdere ontwikkeling van die 2D metode gestuit moet word. Die resultate het ook aangedui dat die 3D metode ‘n akuraatheid baie na aan die maatstaf van 0.1 m sal hê wanneer prototipe bewegings 0.6 m oorskrei (b.v. gedurende ‘n storm). Dit sal die oplossing lewensvatbaar maak by die huidige bewys van konsep fase vir die verdere ontwikkeling wat vinnige ontplooiing gedurende ‘n storm sal moontlik maak.

Les PCB (polychlorobiphényles) sont des molécules connues pour leur longue demi-vie et leur forte liposolubilité qui conduisent à une bioaccumulation et une bioamplification dans les réseaux trophiques, menant à un potentiel risque pour les prédateurs de haut niveau tel que l'Homme. De plus, il a été démontré que leur affinité avec les composés lipidiques conduisaient à une transmission de la femelle à l'œuf chez les poissons. Dans ce contexte, et comme d'autres travaux ont déjà montré des effets des PCB sur la physiologie et le comportement d'animaux contaminés de différentes façons, nous avons observé les effets de ces molécules chez deux espèces, la sole commune et le poisson zèbre. La contamination a été réalisée via l'alimentation avec deux mélanges de PCB et deux concentrations qui correspondent à des situations environnementales, en termes de dose ou de choix et de proportion des congénères retenus. La dose la plus haute est équivalente à celle mesurée dans de la chair de molusques en baie de Seine et la dose intermédiaire à celle mesurée en estuaire de Loire. Les soles contaminées ont montré une diminution du niveau d'activité locomoteur après 30 jours (j) de contamination et une altération des capacités cryptiques après 60 j de contamination. Les poissons zèbre contaminés ont montré une augmentation de l'activité locomotrice après 250 j de contamination. La génération issue de cette génération de poisson zèbre contaminée a elle aussi montré une augmentation de l'activité locomotrice au stade larvaire et adulte. Chez les adultes, cela s'est traduit par une diminution de l'utilisation de la zone de fond des bacs et une augmentation du nombre de transition de zones, ce qui s'explique par une perte d'inhibition comportementale. Dans les deux cas, les phénotypes comportementaux observés chez les groupes PCB sont associés à une altération de la locomotion dans le sens d'une baisse d'activité pour une espèce placide comme la sole et dans le sens de l'augmentation pour une espèce mobile comme le poisson zèbre.

Laboratory experiments of rip current systems are performed in a wave basin with a bar and rip channel geometry at the Ocean Engineering Laboratory at the University of Delaware. The experiments include both in situ water level and velocity measurements and optical visualization of the flow field under a variety of normal-incident wave conditions. Digital video is used to record surface drifters moving through a rip current system. A method is presented that tracks these digitally-recorded drifters into long Lagrangian sequences. The laboratory measurements capture both an Eulerian and Lagrangian description of the rip current system. Time-averaged rip current properties are calculated and analyzed using both in situ and video measurements. From the video, Lagrangian velocities are computed with forward differencing of the low-pass filtered drifter tracks. Wave properties are also estimated using the orbital drifter motions and linear (Airy) wave theory. The effects of various wave conditions on the time-averaged rip current systems are investigated to show that wave height is a critical parameter. Measurements of circulation cells are obtained by spatially averaging the drifter track velocity measurements into a polar grid ranging from 0.25 m to 3.25 m from the center of the cell. Circulation cell features, such as the center of circulation and cell width, are calculated to characterize their response to various wave conditions. Spectral analyses are used to characterize the rip current pulsations in the experimental measurements. Three frequencies are found to be energetic in several of the experiments in the low frequency band: the wave group frequency, a lower frequency, and the interaction of the wave group and lower frequencies. Some experiments have significant energy at each of the three peaks, where others have only one or none. The lower frequency motions have also been found in the video measurements and attributed to rip meandering. Possible causes for the low-frequency pulsations, including wave basin seiching, circulation cell instabilities, and wave-current interaction, are discussed. This thesis adds to previous rip current studies by providing a spatially-large and time-varying perspective of rip current systems as a whole.

Visual Attention is an interesting concept that constantly widens its application areas in the field of image processing and computer vision. The main idea of visual attention is to find the locations on the image that are visually attractive. In this thesis, the visually attractive regions are extracted and tracked in video sequences coming from the vision systems of mobile platforms. First, the salient regions are extracted in each frame and a feature vector is constructed for each one. Then Scale Invariant Feature Transform (SIFT) is applied only to the salient regions to extract more stable features. The tracking is achieved by matching the salient regions of consecutive frames by comparing their feature vectors. Then the SIFT points of salient regions are matched to calculate the shift values for the matched pairs. Limiting the SIFT application to only the salient regions results in significantly reduced computational cost. Moreover, the salient region detection procedure is also limited to the predetermined regions throughout the video sequence in order to increase the efficiency. In addition, the visual attention channels are limited to the most dominant features of the regions. Experimental results that compare the algorithm outputs with ground-truth data reveal that, the proposed algorithm has fine tracking performance together with acceptable computational cost. Promising results are obtained even with blurred video sequences typical of ground vehicles and robots and in an uncontrolled environment.

An algorithm for tracking single visual targets is developed in this study. Feature detection is the necessary and appropriate image processing technique for this algorithm. The main point of this approach is to use the data supplied by the feature detection as the observation from a group of targets having similar motion dynamics. Therefore a single visual target is regarded as a group of multiple targets. Accurate data association and state estimation under clutter are desired for this application similar to other multi-target tracking applications. The group tracking approach is used with the well-known probabilistic data association technique to cope with data association and estimation problems. The applicability of this method particularly for visual tracking and for other cases is also discussed.