Enteric viruses are viruses which replicate in the intestinal tract of man and animals. One mode of transmission for enteric viruses is the fecal-oral route. Drinking water which has been contaminated with sewage or sewage effluent has been implicated as a means for the spread of enteric viruses. Monitoring water for virus contamination requires two steps: 1) the collection and the concentration of the water sample and 2) the isolation and identification of the virus present. Current methods for the detection of enteric viruses in water requires the use of animal cell culture. This technique has several drawbacks, such as: 1) long incubation periods, up to two and three weeks, before some enteric viruses are detected, 2) not all viruses can be detected in one cell line, and 3) not all viruses have been grown in cell culture. More rapid techniques, such as fluorescent antibody or radioimmunoassay do not have the needed sensitivity to detect the low levels of virus found in contaminated water. These techniques also require the production of an antibody for each different virus type. An alternative technique for the detection of viruses in water was sought. Recent advances in recombinant DNA technology now makes it possible to detect viruses without the use of cell culture or antibodies. Gene probes that hybridize to the RNA of poliovirus and hepatitis A virus were tested for their ability to detect different enteric viruses. The probes were labeled with ³²P dCTP and ³²P dATP to a specific activity greater then 1.0 x 10⁹ cpm/ug DNA. Gene Screen Plus (NEN) was chosen as the hybridization membrane since it was more sensitive to virus detection than the other membranes tested. A dot-blot apparatus (Bio Rad) was used to apply the samples. Results were visualized by autoradiography for thirty-six hours at -70° C. One infectious unit of poliovirus and hepatitis A virus was detected using labeled cDNA probes. Upon comparison, the dot blot assay was as sensitive as tissue culture for the detection of poliovirus in beef extract, secondary effluent, and tapwater. Environmental samples, such as secondary effluent, reclaimed wastewater and unchlorinated drinking water were also assayed for poliovirus and hepatitis A virus with the use of gene probes. The results presented here offer an alternative method for screening water samples for the presence of enteric viruses.

Enteroviruses affect a broad segment of the population throughout the world and have been suspected to play a major role in waterborne disease for quite some time. The presence of these viruses in drinking water supplies constitutes a major health risk to the population because of their low infectious dose. The monitoring and study of these viruses in the environment have been limited by the current standard detection methodologies. Nucleic acid probe hybridization is a new and effective approach for the study and detection of these viruses in the environment. An important step in the detection of viruses in concentrated water samples by nucleic acid probes is the isolation of the viral genome from the water sample for hybridization. Previously, a series of time consuming organic extract ions was used to isolate viral RNA. This study reports the development of an alternative method for the isolation and preservation of viral RNA in environmental samples. Briefly, the sample is heated in the presence of an RNase inhibitor, and then applied to a hybridization membrane. This procedure has greatly reduced the time and difficulty of the assay while maintaining sensitivity and increasing consistency. This study reports the development and modification of a nonradioactive labeling system for the detection of viruses in water. Nonradioactive labels such as biotin offer several advantages over radioactive labels including unlimited shelf life, reduced cost and time of assay, and elimination of the radiation hazard. However, radioactive labels are generally the more sensitive method of detection. By combining direct and indirect labeling strategies, the sensitivity of this nonradioactive assay has been increased ten-fold. This assay can detect as little as 100 plaque forming units of poliovirus, only one order of magnitude less sensitive than radiolabeled probes. This assay is also ten-fold less sensitive than radiolabeled probes for the detection of enteroviruses in water samples. Nonradioactive probes offer a safe, inexpensive alternative to radiolabeled probes and tissue culture for the detection of viruses in the environment when ultrasensitivity is not required.

Rotaviruses are one of the most significant causes of diarrheal disease in the world. Their presence in groundwater and drinking water supplies constitutes a health risk to the population. The study of rotaviruses in the environment has been hampered by the lack of accessible and consistent detection methodologies. Gene probes and other molecular techniques are a novel approach for the detection of these viruses in water. The feasibility of these new techniques for the detection and study of rotaviruses in the environment has been assessed using the simian SA-11 and the culturable human Wa rotavirus strains as models. Two general approaches have been undertaken consisting of hybridization of probes with genomic RNA and hybridization with mRNA produced by the virion-incorporated transcriptase. Hybridization of gene probes with genomic dsRNA of rotaviruses in environmental concentrates resulted in the detection of 10 4 immunofoci of Wa rotavirus. In vitro transcription serves as an amplification method with sensitivity 100- to 1000-fold greater than when probing for genomic RNA. The sensitivity obtained in Wa-seeded distilled water and environmental concentrates after in vitro transcription is 2 and 20 immunofoci, respectively. Proteins in environmental concentrates decrease the efficiency of probe hybridization by 10-100 fold. Also, transcriptase-inhibiting factors found in environmental samples decrease the production of mRNA. Both proteins and transcriptase-inhibiting factors can be reduced significantly with Sephadex G-200 columns. Passage of environmental concentrate through Sephadex G-200 spun columns, followed by in vitro transcription, was used to detect rotaviruses in environmental samples. Rotaviruses were detected by this combination of techniques in eight of 20 sewage samples, one of 16 tap water samples, five of 32 ground water samples, and two of nine surface water samples. Only one of 17 samples which tested positive with Wa cDNA 4 was positive for non-specific probe binding. The probing of rotavirus mRNA, amplified by the virion-incorporated transcriptase, is a practical and feasible method for monitoring these viruses in the environment.