archives@tulane.edu / Despite the increasing use of keyboards in the classroom, handwriting is still considered a fundamental skill that young children need to master to succeed in most areas of the elementary school curriculum. Children’s school readiness is determined by an array of cognitive, perceptual, and motor abilities that provide the foundation for academic success. These foundational abilities must be integrated for efficient handwriting and a failure of this integration predicts later academic achievement. When children begin writing, they develop from producing incoherent lines to producing letters that are more common in their language or are found in their names. Children must then learn to produce the remaining letters in their alphabet to become proficient writers. The process that children use to master the letters of an alphabet is not well understood. Previous research has focused primarily on the production of handwriting as a single skill, yet the production of handwriting entails a process in which children must integrate visual, fine motor, and basic reading skills to produce letters and words. The process of handwriting also develops in an environment that is full of letters and words. To date, the literature on handwriting has failed to address the processes that children utilize during handwriting, how these processes change through children’s development, and how the environment children are developing in influences these processes. This dissertation provides a theoretically integrative account of children’s handwriting development. The objectives of this dissertation are to determine the letter frequencies in children’s picture books, determine the opportunities that children are presented to copy letters in handwriting workbooks, measure the influence of change in grade and growth of basic reading skills on children’s visual processing development during handwriting, and measure visual-motor integration during handwriting. The approach to test these objectives is to integrate methods from educational and developmental psychology literatures in a novel series of studies using content analyses of children’s educational resources, head-mounted eye-tracking and academic assessments. By understanding the interaction between cognitive, linguistic, visual, and motor processes, researchers may establish possible mechanisms for the process of children’s development of complex skills, such as handwriting. / 1 / Nicholas E. Fears

Handwriting is a fundamental skill that must be acquired early in education for academic success. For example, printing errors made by kindergarten children have been found to predict reading and language achievement in first grade(Simner, 1982). The dynamic interplay of perceptual, motor, and linguistic skills makes handwriting a complex skill that can be challenging for young children to master. In this study, the eye movements of 40 children between the ages of 4 and 8 years of age were analyzed to determine how efficiency in visual-motor coordination develops as they copy letters and words, methods that teachers commonly employ to teach handwriting. These data provide new information about the development of the processes involved in the complex skill of handwriting during the first years of formal education. In the early school years, children become increasingly efficient in how they deploy eye movements as they learn to copy letters. The new methods used here provide a more fine-grained assessment tool to measure visual perception during handwriting and offer a more systematic approach for identifying potential sources of errors made by young children as they learn to write. / Nicholas E Fears

Visual-motor integration, visual perception and motor co-ordination contribute to successful academic, school and career life. Literature also indicates that delays in the skills in above mentioned abilities could lead to delays in the mastering of object control skills. Furthermore, due to the developing needs of South Africa, there is a range of socio-economic challenges, and the effects on the above mentioned skills seem to lack development. Due to the possible effect that visual skills can have on academic performance, it seems important to further investigate the effect it may have on sport skills as well. The aim of this study was firstly, to determine the effect of gender differences and school types associated with different socio-economic conditions on the visual-motor integration, visual perception and motor co-ordination abilities of Grade 1 boys and girls in the North West Province of South Africa. Secondly, the study aimed to determine the relationship between visual-motor integration, visual perception, motor co-ordination and object control skills of Grade 1-learners in the North West Province of South Africa. For the purpose of the first objective 816 participants (419 boys and 397 girls) were evaluated and for the second objective, 806 participants (413 boys and 393 girls) were evaluated. The test instrument used to determine the level of the participants’ visual-motor skills was the Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration – 4th ed. (VMI-4) which consisted of the visual- motor integration test and two subtests which included visual perception and motor co- ordination. The children’s object-control skills were tested with the Test of Gross Motor Development – 2 (TGMD-2) which is designed to test the gross motor functioning of children from 3 to 10 years old. The STATISTICA software package (StatSoft, 2013) was used to analyse data. Data was analysed by means of descriptive statistics as well as a variation analyses (ANOVA). ANOVA was used to determine the interaction effect between gender and/or socio-economic status and visual-motor integration, visual perception and motor co-ordination. Independent t-testing was used to determine the effect of gender differences and socio-economic status in visual-motor integration, visual perception and motor co-ordination. Effect sizes (d) were used to calculate practical significance of differences. Two-way frequency tables were used to compare the classifications of the different school quintiles (Quintile 1-3 = schools associated with low socio-economic status and Quintile 4-5 = schools associated with high socio-economic status) among the VMI-4-classes. The Pearson Chi-square was used to indicate the significance of the differences and the level of statistical significance was set at p≤0.05. Furthermore a Spearman rank order correlation was used to determine the correlations among visual-motor integration, visual perception, motor co-ordination, striking a stationary ball, stationary dribble, catch, kick, underhand rolling and overhand throw, and an object control total. The results revealed that gender had no significant effect on visual-motor integration, visual perception and motor co-ordination within the respective school types associated with different socio-economic conditions. Although there were no significant differences between the boys and girls, statistically significant higher mean scores were found in school types associated with higher socio-economic status (Quintile 4 and 5) with regard to visual-motor integration, visual perception and motor co-ordination. The object control skills total had small and medium correlations with visual- motor integration, visual perception and motor co-ordination. Visual perception had the highest correlation with the object control skills total. These results contribute to our understanding of the influence that visual-motor integration, visual perception and motor co-ordination have on sport skills and more specifically ball sport skills. This knowledge enables researchers to better address problems which present in early years with regard to visual skills, as well as the negative impact which low socio-economic circumstances have on these skills in order to improve academic and sport skills later. / MA (Child Kinetics), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

Visual-motor integration, visual perception and motor co-ordination contribute to successful academic, school and career life. Literature also indicates that delays in the skills in above mentioned abilities could lead to delays in the mastering of object control skills. Furthermore, due to the developing needs of South Africa, there is a range of socio-economic challenges, and the effects on the above mentioned skills seem to lack development. Due to the possible effect that visual skills can have on academic performance, it seems important to further investigate the effect it may have on sport skills as well. The aim of this study was firstly, to determine the effect of gender differences and school types associated with different socio-economic conditions on the visual-motor integration, visual perception and motor co-ordination abilities of Grade 1 boys and girls in the North West Province of South Africa. Secondly, the study aimed to determine the relationship between visual-motor integration, visual perception, motor co-ordination and object control skills of Grade 1-learners in the North West Province of South Africa. For the purpose of the first objective 816 participants (419 boys and 397 girls) were evaluated and for the second objective, 806 participants (413 boys and 393 girls) were evaluated. The test instrument used to determine the level of the participants’ visual-motor skills was the Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration – 4th ed. (VMI-4) which consisted of the visual- motor integration test and two subtests which included visual perception and motor co- ordination. The children’s object-control skills were tested with the Test of Gross Motor Development – 2 (TGMD-2) which is designed to test the gross motor functioning of children from 3 to 10 years old. The STATISTICA software package (StatSoft, 2013) was used to analyse data. Data was analysed by means of descriptive statistics as well as a variation analyses (ANOVA). ANOVA was used to determine the interaction effect between gender and/or socio-economic status and visual-motor integration, visual perception and motor co-ordination. Independent t-testing was used to determine the effect of gender differences and socio-economic status in visual-motor integration, visual perception and motor co-ordination. Effect sizes (d) were used to calculate practical significance of differences. Two-way frequency tables were used to compare the classifications of the different school quintiles (Quintile 1-3 = schools associated with low socio-economic status and Quintile 4-5 = schools associated with high socio-economic status) among the VMI-4-classes. The Pearson Chi-square was used to indicate the significance of the differences and the level of statistical significance was set at p≤0.05. Furthermore a Spearman rank order correlation was used to determine the correlations among visual-motor integration, visual perception, motor co-ordination, striking a stationary ball, stationary dribble, catch, kick, underhand rolling and overhand throw, and an object control total. The results revealed that gender had no significant effect on visual-motor integration, visual perception and motor co-ordination within the respective school types associated with different socio-economic conditions. Although there were no significant differences between the boys and girls, statistically significant higher mean scores were found in school types associated with higher socio-economic status (Quintile 4 and 5) with regard to visual-motor integration, visual perception and motor co-ordination. The object control skills total had small and medium correlations with visual- motor integration, visual perception and motor co-ordination. Visual perception had the highest correlation with the object control skills total. These results contribute to our understanding of the influence that visual-motor integration, visual perception and motor co-ordination have on sport skills and more specifically ball sport skills. This knowledge enables researchers to better address problems which present in early years with regard to visual skills, as well as the negative impact which low socio-economic circumstances have on these skills in order to improve academic and sport skills later. / MA (Child Kinetics), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

On t.p.: Degree of Masters of Science (Counselling Psychology) / Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2003. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: During middle childhood, cognitive, social, emotional and self-concept development is of importance, and prepares the child for the adaptation and challenges awaiting the child in adolescence. Visualmotor integration is described by various sources as playing an important role in the development of a child. Visual-motor integration is the child's ability to integrate visual perceptual skills with fine motor coordination. In order to assess visual-motor integration functioning, the Developmental Test of Visual- Motor Integration (VMJ) (Beery, 1989) is often applied. Considering visual-motor integration functioning as an integral part of the drawing task (Harris, 1963), the Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test (GHD) may also convey important information ofa child's visual-motor integration functioning. The primary aim of the present study was to determine the status of visual-motor integration functioning of the selected group of middle childhood children within the South African context, in order to identify possible delays. Visual-motor integration functioning was determined by the children's performance on GHD and the VMI. Academic achievement results were also reviewed to determine the chosen sample's status in this regard. The obtained results were analyzed and summarized in order to obtain information leading to the fulfillment of the primary aim. The secondary aim of the present study flows parallel to the primary aim, and was motivated by the need to discover an effective, child-friendly measurement tool of visual-motor integration, applicable at a young age, as to gain accurate knowledge of a child's visual-motor integration functioning. The secondary aim consisted of exploring a) the correlations (if any) between the results of the Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test (GHD) and the biographical variables of gender, chronological age and socioeconomic status, b) the correlations (if any) between the results of the Beery Developmental test of Visual-Motor Integration (VMI) and the above-mentioned variables, c) the correlations (if any) between academic achievement and the above-mentioned variables and test results, and d) the correlations (if any) between the VMI and GHD results, in order to compare different tests of visual-motor integration. Three hundred and thirty nine participants attending grade one to four in a specific primary school, took part in this study. The study resulted in various conclusions regarding the status of visual-motor integration functioning, the most relevant being that the selected sample presents with functioning levels lower than that which is expected for children their age, in their achievement on both the VMI and the GHD, implying possible visual-motor integration functioning challenges. This finding implies the need to implement effective intervention programmes in order to address this seemingly evident delay. Conclusions regarding the vanous relationships between the test results and certain biographical variables include the following: It was found that the relationship between socioeconomic status and childhood development, as reflected by the correlation between socioeconomic status and the GHD, seems very important in the South African context. When considering gender differences, females achieved lower scores on both tests applied in the present study than males. Chronological age correlated significantly with scores on the VMI. It was further shown that visual-motor integration functioning could have a significant impact on academic achievement. The VMI and GHD results were compared, in order to compare different tests of visual-motor integration. High scores on the GHD related significantly to high scores on the VMI. Although the present study was unable to confirm the superiority of one test, various considerations were discussed leading to the identification of a child-friendly test of visual-motor integration. The present study highlights the importance of identifying and addressing developmental delays in general, and visualmotor integration functioning in specific, in order to ensure the development of middle childhood children to their complete potential in the South African context. It also underlines the need for effective, child-friendly assessment tools of visual-motor integration that will ensure the effective identification of developmental delays. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Gedurende middelkinderjare is kognitiewe-, emosionele- en selfbeeldontwikkeling van belang, omdat dit die kind voorberei vir die verwagte aanpassings en uitdagings tydens adolessensie. Visueelmotoriese integrasie speel 'n sentrale rol in kinderontwikkeling. Visueel-motoriese integrasie word beskryf as die kind se vermoë om visueel-perseptuele vaardighede te integreer met fyn-motoriese koërdinasie, Die VMI (Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration, Beery (1989)) word gereeld as meetinstrument gebruik vir visueel-motoriese integrasie. Omdat visueel-motoriese integrasie 'n sentrale deel van 'n kind se tekenvaardighede is, is die GHD (Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test) ook toepaslik om informasie rakende 'n kind se visueel-motoriese integrasie funksionering te bepaal. Die primêre doel van die huidige studie was om die status van visueel-motoriese integrasie funksionering van 'n gekose groep kinders in die middelkinderjare binne die Suid-Afrikaanse konteks, te bepaal. Hierdie doel is bereik deur die toepassing van die VMI en die GHD. Akademiese resultate is verder in ag geneem. Die analisering van die finale resultate en data het gelei tot belangrike afleidings rakende die status van die geselekteerde steekproef. Die sekondêre doel was gemotiveer deur die behoefte om 'n effektiewe, kindervriendelike meetinstrument van visueel-motoriese integrasie te identifiseer, wat toepaslik is op 'n jong ouderdom, en akkurate kennis rakende 'n kind se visueel-motoriese integrasie funksionering tot gevolg het. Om die sekondêre doel aan te spreek, is die volgende ondersoek: a) die korrelasies (indien enige) tussen die resultate van die GHD en sekere biografiese veranderlikes, naamlik geslag, chronologiese ouderdom en sosio-ekonomiese status; b) die korrelasies (indien enige) tussen die resultate van die VMI en die bogenoemde biografiese veranderlikes; c) die korrelasies (indien enige) tussen akademiese resultate en die bogenoemde veranderlikes en toets resultate; en d) die korrelasies (indien enige) tussen die GHD en die VMI resultate, ten einde verskillende toetse van visueel-motoriese integrasie te vergelyk. Die huidige studie dui op vele gevolgtrekkings rakende die status van visueel-motoriese integrasie funksionering in die geselekteerde steekproef; die mees relevante dat die steekproef funksioneer op 'n vlak wat laer is as dit wat verwag word vir kinders van hulouderdom. Hierdie gevolgtrekking is gebaseer op die resultate van beide die GHD en die VMI, en impliseer moontlike visueel-motoriese integrasie agterstande. Hierdie bevinding dui op 'n behoefte vir effektiewe intervensie programme wat hierdie oënskynlike agterstande sal aanspreek. Gevolgtrekkings rakende die vele verwantskappe tussen die toetsresultate en sekere biografiese veranderlikes, sluit die volgende in: kinderfunksionering, soos gereflekteer deur die resultate van die GHD, is beduidend verwant aan sosio-ekonomiese status. Hierdie verskynsel blyk belangrik te wees in die Suid-Afrikaanse konteks. Met in agneming van geslagsverskille, het vroulike deelnemers beduidend swakker resultate in beide die GHD en die VMI as manlike deelnemers getoon. Chronologiese ouderdom het beduidend met VMI resultate gekorreleer. Laastens het dit ook gevolg dat visueel-motoriese integrasie, soos reflekteer deur die resultate van beide die VMI en die GHD, 'n beduidende verwantskap tot akademiese funksionering toon. 'n Vergelyking tussen die resultate van die VMI en die GHD het gelei tot die gevolgtrekking dat hierdie twee toetse beduidend positief verwant is. Hoë tellings op die GHD het verband gehou met hoë tellings op die VMI. Alhoewel die resultate van die huidige studie nie die superioriteit van die gebruik van die een toets bo die van die ander kon bevestig nie, is verskeie oorwegings verder bespreek wat in ag geneem behoort te word tydens die seleksie van 'n kindervriendelike meetinstrument van visueelmotoriese integrasie. Die huidige studie is van waarde in die beklemtoning van die belangrikheid om ontwikkelingsagterstande in die algemeen, en spesifiek in visueel-motoriese integrasie funksionering, spoedig te identifiseer en aan te spreek. Die uitvoering hiervan mag 'n bydra lewer tot die ontwikkeling van kinders se potensiaal in die Suid-Afrikaanse konteks. Die studie beklemtoon verder die belangrikheid van effektiewe, kindervriendelike meetinstrumente van visueel-motoriese integrasie, wat die identifisering van hierdie ontwikkelingsagterstande sal verseker.

No description available.

Thesis (MA)--University of Stellenbosch, 2001. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Visual-motor integration is an important neuro-psychological aspect of school readiness. Developmental deficits in this area can have a detrimental influence on a child's ability to master reading, writing and arithmetic skills at school entrance level. Visual-motor integration problems should therefore be detected as early as possible to be able to implement intervention strategies which will promote visual-motor development. The study is socially relevant as it corresponds with the South African school policy which changed to a more integrative, inclusive approach after 1994. The American standardised Beery Developmental Test for Visual-Motor Integration (VMI) is widely used as a screening technique for visual-motor abilities by psychologists, occupational therapists, educators and remedial teachers in South Africa. In order to determine the predictive validity of the American VMI for a group of South African subjects, the results of children on the VMI: 1989-norms and VMI: 1997-norms were compared to their results in the Copying Test of the Junior South African Individual Scales (JSAIS). Performance on these three tests were also compared with certain biographical variables as well as teacher ratings of specific academic skills. A representative sample of 238 pre-school children from the Stellenbosch region were selected. According to the obtained results, a significant relationship was found between the results of the VMI: 1989 and VMI: 1997. The results of both the VMI: 1989 and VMI: 1997 correlated significantly with the results of the Copying Test. Performance in the tests correlated with chronological age, socio-economic status, as well as teacher ratings of specific academic skills. The discrepancy between the test performance of the three ethnic groups, suggests that the rate of the perceptual motor development described by the VMI developmental norms may be culture-specific. Considering the overall results of this study, the interchangeability of the Copying Test and the VMI, especially the VMI: 1997, in clinical use is acceptable in the South African context. The Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration thus offers significant predictive validity, as well as a valid indication, of the visual-motor integration development in the sample ofpre-schoolers used. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Visueel-motoriese integrasie IS 'n essensiële neuro-sielkundige aspek van skoolgereedheid. Ontwikkelingsagterstande in hierdie area kan 'n kind se lees-, taal- en rekenkundige vermoëns nadelig beïnvloed. Probleme ten opsigte van visueel-motoriese integrasie behoort dus so vroeg as moontlik opgespoor te word sodat remediërende strategieë geïmplementeer kan word wat visueel-motoriese integrasie bevorder. Die navorsing is sosiaal relevant deurdat dit aansluit by die skoolbeleid wat sedert 1994 na 'n meer geïntegreerde, inklusiewe benadering met die akkomodasie van diversiteit, verander het. Sielkundiges, arbeidsterapeute, opvoedkundiges en remediërende onderwysers in Suid- Afrika benut die Amerikaans gestandaardiseerde Beery-Ontwikkelingstoets vir Visueel- Motoriese Integrasie (VMI) op gereelde grondslag vir die evaluering van visueelmotoriese vaardighede. Ten einde die voorspellingsgeldigheid te bepaal van die Amerikaanse VMI vir 'n groep Suid-Afrikaanse toetslinge, is hul prestasies op die VMI: 1989-norms, sowel as die VMI: 1997-norms, met hul prestasies in die Natekentoets van die Junior Suid-Afrikaanse Individuele Skale (JSAIS) vergelyk. Prestasie in die toetse is ook met sekere biografiese veranderlikes, sowel as onderwyser-beoordelings van spesifieke akademiese vaardighede, vergelyk. 'n Verteenwoordigende steekproef van 238 voorskoolse kinders vanuit die Stellenbosch-omgewing is gekies. Uit die resultate blyk daar 'n beduidende korrelasie tussen die VMI: 1989-resultate en die VMI: 1997-resultate te wees. Die resultate van beide die VMI: 1989 en VMI: 1997 het beduidend met dié van die Natekentoets gekorreleer. Prestasie in die toetse het met kronologiese ouderdom, sosio-ekonomiese status, asook onderwyser-beoordelings van spesifieke akademiese vaardighede, gekorreleer. Die VMI-prestasies van die drie etniese groepe het beduidend verskil en die gevolgtrekking kan gemaak word dat die VMI nie as 'n kultuurvrye toets beskou kan word nie. Die gevolgtrekking op grond van die resultate van die huidige studie blyk dat die VMI, en veral die VMI: 1997, beduidende voorspellingsgeldigheid by die voorskoolse ondersoekgroep gelewer het en a / ISISHW ANKATHELO: Ukumanya ngokuhamba okubonakalayo kuyinto ebalulekileyo yokulungela ukungena esikolweni. lintsilelo zenkqubela phambili kulo mba zinganefuthe elibonakalayo lobugcisa bokufunda emntwaneni, ukubhala nobuchule bezibalo kumgangatho wokungena esikolweni. lingxaki zokumanya ngokuhamba okubonakalayo kufuneka ziqatshelwe kuselithuba khon'ukuze kwenziwe amalinge okungenela aya kuthi onyuse inkqubela phambili yokuhamba okubonakalayo. I-Beery Development Test yokumanya ngokuhamba okubonakalayo (VMI) isetyenziswa ngokubanzi njengobugcisa bomkhusane wokuhamba okubonakalayo, ziinzululwazi zengqondo, iingcali zokunyanga, abefundisi-ntsapho, kwakunye neetitshala ezilungisayo eMzantsi Afrika, kodwa kusekho impikiswano yokuba olu vavanyo, lubekwe emgangathweni yiMelika, likhupha iziphumo ezizizo na kwilizwe leentlanga ezahlukeneyo njengoMzantsi Afrika. Ukuze kufunyanwe ukuba 1-VMI ikhupha iziphumo ezizizo na kumalungu aseMzantsi Afrika, iziphumo zabantwana kwi-VMI: 1989 nakwi- VMI: 1997 zathelekiswa neziphumo zabo kwi South African Copying Test. Kuye kwakhethwa isampulu yabantwana abangama-238 abalungele ukungena esikolweni kwingingqi yaseStellenbosch. Kuye kwafunyanwa unxulumano olubalulekileyo phakathi kweziphumo zeVMI: 1989 neze- VMI: 1997. Zozibini iziphumo ze-VMI: 1989 neze- VMI: 1997 ziye zanxulumana ngokubalulekileyo neziphumo ze-Copying Test. Indlela ekwenziwe ngayo iye yanxulumana nokulandelelana ngamaxesha obudala ngokunjalo novavanyo lukatitshala lobugcisa obuthile kwezemfundo. Umahluko wovavanyo phakathi kwendlela ekuqhutywe ngayo ziintlanga ezintathu, ucebisa ukuba isantya senkqubela phambili sendlela yokubona echazwe sisithethe senkqubela se-VMI sinokwayama kwimpucuko. Nakubeni kunjalo, xa sicinga ngeziphumo zonke zesi sifundo, 1-VMI inike uphawu lenkqubela phambili yokumanya ngokuhamba okubonakalayo kwisampulu yabantwana abasetyenzisiweyo abalungele ukungena esikolweni.

In the current study, three possible interpretations of children’s number line estimation (NLE) performance were examined for appropriateness and possible correlates of performance were tracked over time in a classroom exemplifying recommended mathematics pedagogy for young children. In December and May, 21 4-year-olds completed the NLE task (0-10 range) and measures of numerical knowledge, spatial skills, and visual-motor integration. With high-quality teaching, children made large gains in these skills (d = 0.96-1.28). Due to uniformly high achievement, few expected correlations were observed, however. A strategy account of NLE performance was supported over the traditional logarithmic-to-linear shift account and the newly proposed proportion-judgement account. Patterns of error in estimation provide a better indication of understanding of the linear number line than models of best fit. Indeed, interpreting linearity of NLE as indicative of an underlying representation of number could lead to inappropriate conceptualizations of math learning disabilities and misguided interventions.

In the current study, three possible interpretations of children’s number line estimation (NLE) performance were examined for appropriateness and possible correlates of performance were tracked over time in a classroom exemplifying recommended mathematics pedagogy for young children. In December and May, 21 4-year-olds completed the NLE task (0-10 range) and measures of numerical knowledge, spatial skills, and visual-motor integration. With high-quality teaching, children made large gains in these skills (d = 0.96-1.28). Due to uniformly high achievement, few expected correlations were observed, however. A strategy account of NLE performance was supported over the traditional logarithmic-to-linear shift account and the newly proposed proportion-judgement account. Patterns of error in estimation provide a better indication of understanding of the linear number line than models of best fit. Indeed, interpreting linearity of NLE as indicative of an underlying representation of number could lead to inappropriate conceptualizations of math learning disabilities and misguided interventions.

This study evolved because of the researcher’s need to inquire whether visualmotor integration and fine motor coordination contribute to a child’s readiness to acquire handwriting skills. As school-going age is a controversial topic in the South- African context, the researcher set out to compare the readiness to acquire handwriting skills between two groups of Grade 1 children. This study was developed to determine whether a relationship existed between visual-motor integration and fine motor coordination as part of handwriting readiness, and acquiring handwriting skills in two age groups namely five-year-old children and six-year-old children. Initially the characteristics of the two age groups were determined. This was followed by establishing the level of development for visual-motor integration, fine motor coordination and handwriting skills in both age groups as well as comparing the levels of development. The abovementioned was obtained through the Miller Function and Participation Scales en the Minnesota Handwriting Assessment. Lastly, the scores for visual-motor integration and fine motor integration were correlated to the six categories of the Minnesota Handwriting Assessment. Both age groups presented with overall age appropriate abilities in visual-motor integration and fine motor coordination. The six-year-old group did better on all six of the categories for handwriting in the Minnesota Handwriting Assessment when compared to the five-year-old group. There was a significant difference (p=0.0049) between the visual-motor integration scores between the two age groups. No significant difference between the two age groups was recorded in fine motor coordination. A significant negative correlation was detected between visual-motor integration and the categories of legibility (r=-0.4029), form (r=-0.4300), size (r=-0.4087) and spacing (r=-0.3832) in the five-year-old group. The six-year-old group presented with a strong negative correlation between visual-motor integration and the category of rate (r=-0.3930). When correlating the fine motor coordination score with the categories of the Minnesota Handwriting Assessment, a strong negative correlation was detected with the categories of legibility (r=-0.3850) and spacing (r=-0.4697) in the five-yearold group. The six-year-old group did not present with significant correlations between fine motor coordination and the six categories of the Minnesota Handwriting Assessment. This study confirmed that a relationship exists between visual-motor integration, fine motor integration and handwriting skills. This relationship was not always clear and was influenced by different aspects such as age, maturity as well as the assessment instruments used. This study focused on only one district in Tshwane, which limited the data. The two age groups in this study were not matched for gender, ethnicity and handedness. / Dissertation (MOccTher)--University of Pretoria, 2013. / gm2014 / Occupational Therapy / unrestricted