Zoo officials have for many years participated in ex situ conservation activities. Recently however, a growing number of zoos have shown an interest in becoming involved with in situ conservation projects. One such zoo is the North Carolina Zoological Park (NCZP) in Asheboro, NC. NCZP officials have committed to several of these projects and are aware of their importance. However, little is known about how visitors regard these activities. The two research questions asked were: 1) Are visitors aware of the NCZPâs involvement in in situ conservation efforts? and 2) Do patronsâ of the NCZP support those efforts? Three hypotheses were identified. These included: H1: visitors with an increased awareness of the zooâs involvement in in situ conservation would provide a greater amount of support for these projects, H2: membership status would not affect a visitorâs level of declared support for in situ conservation, and H3: membership status would affect a visitorâs level of monetary support for in situ conservation. A survey instrument was developed using a cross-sectional design. The survey focused on four key elements including contributions (monetary support), declared support for local and international projects, understanding of in situ conservation, and visitor relationships with the zoo. The survey was conducted on-site at the NCZP in June and July 2007. Tests of statistical significance and measures of association indicated that awareness played a statistically significant role in how much declared support a visitor had for a project, but had little to no role in how much money visitors contributed on an annual basis. Findings also indicated that membership status was not related to declared support and therefore this relationship was not statistically significant. Finally findings indicated that the relationship between membership status and annual monetary contributions was statistically significant. Recommendations for the NCZP were made based on the studyâs findings.

The flathead catfish Pylodictis olivaris is a large piscivorous carnivore that has been widely introduced beyond its native range. I studied the behavior of a flathead catfish population that has recently inhabited a section of the Deep River, North Carolina (in the upper Cape Fear River basin), and currently coexists with the federally endangered Cape Fear shiner Notropis mekistocholas. This coexistence raises concerns of predation risks of the flathead catfish on the Cape Fear shiner. I radio-tagged 24 adult flathead catfish in the Deep River between Carbonton and Highfalls dams and monitored their behavior from June 2004 to August 2005. Fish were tracked weekly to determine seasonal patterns, and subsets of those were tracked once per hour for a 24-hour period to determine diel patterns. Eight of the fish were captured, tagged, and released in the upstream, shallow section of the river, and 16 in the deep, downstream, impounded section. A majority of the tagged fish either quickly moved into or stayed in the downstream, impounded section for the entire study period. Flathead catfish selected microhabitats non-randomly annually and within three functional seasons (spawning, growth, and winter). Flathead catfish were usually associated with habitats that were relatively deep (3-6 m), slow in velocity, over bedrock substrates, and nearly always in or adjacent to coarse woody debris or associated with no cover. Among seasons, these fish utilized different habitats, with faster bottom velocities during the spawning season, silt/clay substrates and faster mean column velocities in the growth season, and in the winter season, they occupied the deepest water available and most frequently, not associated with any cover type. I calculated estimates of seasonal home range as linear home range and kernel density estimates (99%, 95%, 90% and 50%). Flathead catfish mean linear home ranges were greater than 16 km annually, and mean seasonal ranges were 13.1 km during spawning, 10.1 km during growth, and 3.8 km in winter. Mean kernel density estimates of home range at 95% level were approximately half the linear estimate of home range annually and for each season. Mean kernel density estimates of home range at 50% (or core use) level were one-tenth of respective linear home ranges. On a diel scale, flathead catfish were generally more active and occupied deeper water at night. My findings on habitat use of adult flathead catfish at multiple spatial and temporal scales suggest the predation risk to Cape Fear shiners may be minimal, based on limited overlap. Furthermore, my results support other recent research describing flathead catfish as a highly mobile fish. These results add to our ecological understanding of this species in its introduced range and offer implications for improved management.

The eastern brook trout is the only trout (charr) species native to the eastern U.S., which contains approximately 25% of the entire native range of the brook trout and 70% of the U.S. range. Stream temperature is a fundamental limiting factor in the distribution and production of brook trout and their range is bounded to the south by a mean July air temperature of 21ºC. Average air temperature in the U.S. has risen by 0.6ºC over the last century and may increase by another 6ºC over the next 100 years. Climate warming may threaten the long-term survival of the brook trout populations in the southern Appalachian Mountains. Using projected future climate scenarios and land use/land cover classes, we developed ordinal and binary logistic regression models to characterize current habitat suitability of brook trout, determine future suitable habitat and prioritize subwatersheds for brook trout conservation. Explanatory variables held in common in every model were the baseline variables (either forest or agriculture), the respective baseline variable with temperature as an interaction term and wetlands. This analysis further supports temperature as a major driver in the distribution of brook trout. Projected future suitable habitat was shown to be moving further north over time. This analysis resulted in map outputs illustrating areas of greatest brook trout population subwatershed status changes and indicates potential areas of concern for brook trout survival due to projected future climate scenarios. These results can aid in prioritizing subwatersheds for brook trout conservation and restoration.

The annual arrival of American shad Alosa sapidissima, striped bass Morone saxatilis and hickory shad Alosa mediocris is ecologically and economically important in the rivers of North Carolina. Both species support commercial and recreational fisheries, and both are the focus of management efforts by state and federal agencies. Reliable information about population levels is essential for effective management. The goal of this study was to estimate the number of adult spawners returning to the Roanoke River. During April-May 2004 and March-May 2005, a stationary 430 kHz hydroacoustic system was deployed on the river bottom in a side-aspect orientation. Tracks of upstream-migrating fish were discernable from ambient noise. The number of fish migrating upstream was slightly lower during 00:00-08:00 compared to the other two 8-hr periods of the day. A majority of fish tracks were within 2 m of the river bottom in both years (89%), and were more associated with ranges near shore. Drift gill netting and boat electrofishing appear to provide an adequate measure of the seasonal presence and absence of target species, though electrofishing provides better samples size. These traditional fisheries methods confirmed the expected seasonal pulses of hickory shad, followed by striped bass, during both years. Counts of upstream fish tracks were low during periods between these pulses. Daytime electrofishing catch rates for 2005 were correlated with daily counts of upstream fish tracks. American shad occurred sporadically at low abundance throughout both years. It was the main target species in this study but made up less than 2% of the catch in both years. A majority of fish captured by gill netting (85%) were within two meters of the river bottom. Analysis methods were standardized in 2005 based on lessons learned in 2004. The 2004 species-specific estimates were 9,046 American shad and 126,176 striped bass. The default estimates (and SEs) for 2005, assuming a uniform cross-channel density of upstream migrants, were 7,054 (450) American shad and 118,778 (4,799) striped bass. Using alternative assumptions about detectability of fish tracks and the cross-channel distribution of upstream migrants, estimates ranged between 5,422 (346) and 13,604 (887) American shad and 94,529 (3,807) and 534,750 striped bass. This first large-scale assessment of the Roanoke River American shad population is difficult to compare with surveys of relative abundance. Estimates of striped bass abundance appear low when compared to traditional stock assessment results. The largest uncertainties regarding the hydroacoustic monitoring is the cross-channel distribution of upstream migrants. For American shad, our study points to the difficulty in assessing the abundance of a target species that is rare in biological samples. Using hydroacoustics to estimate run sizes appears to be feasible, but improvements to the study design are needed. Further validation will improve both accuracy and precision of estimates, and allow fishery managers to use hydroacoustic results with confidence in making management decisions.

Ecology of overwintering young-of-the-year bluefish (Pomatomus saltatrix) off North Carolina was examined for the 2001 and 2002 year-classes. This study addressed the hypothesis that overwinter mortality affects the recruitment of summer-spawned bluefish. A trawling survey was conducted in Onslow Bay, NC from October 2001 to May 2002 and from September 2002 to June 2003. Up to four transects were sampled monthly each ranging from 0.4 to 16.1 kilometers from shore. Lipid content of white muscle and livers were determined using soxhlet extraction. Abundance of bluefish in Onslow Bay depended on winter severity, as catches during the winter were higher during the more mild winter of 2001-02. The highest catches of bluefish occurred within two miles of shore and were strongly associated with anchovy and clupeid prey. Bluefish recruitment was shown to be more complex than previously supposed; at least three young-of-the-year cohorts were observed for both year-classes. Energy reserves peaked in November with larger fish having disproportionately more energy. However, by mid-winter there was little difference in energy storage between the cohorts. These data suggest that larger fish deplete a greater portion of their energy stores as the season progresses while smaller fish defend their energy levels by feeding. Catch data show that summer-spawned bluefish survive the winter despite having lower energy reserves. However, the magnitude of overwinter mortality remains uncertain.

Resident Canada goose (Branta canadensis) populations have increased in urbanizing regions of the eastern United States, where man-made ponds and lakes surrounded by managed turfgrass offer ideal habitats. High concentrations of geese in these areas may cause feces accumulation, outbreaks of zoonotic diseases, eutrophication of adjacent waterways, and spread of turfgrass weeds. Although repellents effectively deter geese from turfgrass areas, frequent mowing (e.g., as in corporate parks and golf courses) may impact the efficacy of repellents. We tested the effect of 2 different mowing schedules on the longevity of FlightControl® PLUS (FCP), an anthraquinone based avian digestive irritant. From June 2007 to October 2008, we conducted 4, 30-day experiments of repellent efficacy on free-ranging geese at 8 sites. Sites were divided into 4 0.1-ha plots, each containing a unique treatment of the repellent (treated or untreated) and mowing frequency (4-day or 8-day). Each experimental session consisted of a 7-day pretreatment period of baseline observations and 30 days of post-treatment observations. Goose droppings were collected daily from transects in each plot, and percent of grass with FCP remaining was measured daily. Also, we tested 234 droppings for Giardia lamblia using a ProSpect Giardia EZ Microplate Assay, measured amounts of nitrogen (TKN) and phosphorus (TP) in 304 fecal samples, and observed 127 potted droppings for plant germination in a greenhouse. On average, goose use of FCP treated plots was lower than on untreated plots for 30 days. Over the 30 day period, goose use and FCP coverage was similar between treated plots mowed every 4 and 8 days. Further, the average FCP coverage on grass blades in treated plots decreased steadily from approximately 95% to 10%. None of the fecal samples tested positive for Giardia. The average amounts of TKN and TP in fecal samples were 24.2 mg/g (range = 12.6 â 55.7) and 3.6 mg/g (range = 1.4 â 8.3) of dry matter, respectively, with an average of 4,318.0 g/ha/day deposited by â42 geese. No controls germinated plants, whereas 4 (3.1%) fecal samples germinated plants: Pennsylvania smartweed (Polygonum pennsylvanicum L.), annual bluegrass (Poa annua L.), and 2 Kyllinga spp. FlightControl® PLUS effectively repelled Canada geese, but longevity of the chemical depends on keeping treated blades alive and under mowing height. Transmission of G. lamblia by Canada geese does not appear to be a high risk. Resident Canada goose droppings at our study sites contribute 17 â 31% of recommended N and 17 â 38% of recommended P in lawn fertilization rates. Kyllinga spp. and annual bluegrass are turfgrass weeds; however the low percentage of germinations indicates little risk of turf-feeding Canada goose weed dispersal. I recommend using FCP on areas of highest goose concentration before and when they are most prevalent. This should be done along with reduction of palatable turfgrass and annual lethal reductions. Fertilization rates should be adjusted depending on the number of geese present and the concentration of their droppings in order to save money and prevent eutrophication. Periodic testing of goose droppings for Giardia lamblia and weed seeds may prevent infestations. Research is needed to find the optimal mowing rate to keep treated blades alive and below mowing height. Information on the movements of resident Canada geese will be important for management of free-ranging populations. Identifying or developing turfgrasses that are unpalatable to Canada geese would be highly useful. If geese test positive for Giardia sp. cysts, trophozoites should be collected to identify species. The alternative to this method is to develop species specific assays. Also, research is needed on the result of resident Canada goose fecal nitrogen and phosphorus deposition on adjacent water quality.

Recent use of prescribed fire and fire surrogates to reduce fuel hazards has spurred interest in their effects on wildlife. Some studies of fire in the southern Appalachian Mountains have documented few effects on reptiles and amphibians. However, these studies were conducted after only one fire and for only a short time period (1 to 3 years) after the fire. From mid-May to mid-August 2006 and 2007, we used drift fences with pitfall traps to trap reptiles, amphibians, and shrews in western North Carolina and to asses their response to 3 fuel reduction treatments: 1) twice-burned (2003 and 2006), 2) mechanical understory cut (2002), and 3) mechanical understory cut (2002) followed by 2 burns (2003 and 2006), and a control. We captured significantly fewer salamanders in the mechanical + twice-burned treatment than in twice-burned and control treatments, but more lizards in the mechanical + twice-burned treatment. Higher lizard captures in mechanical + twice-burned treatments was likely due to increased ground temperatures and greater thermoregulatory opportunities. Higher and more variable ground temperatures and faster drying of the remaining litter and duff in mechanical + twice-burned treatments may have led to fewer salamander captures in these treatments. We captured significantly fewer southeastern shrews (Sorex longirostris) in the mechanical + twice-burned treatment than in the mechanical treatment in 2006, but southeastern shrew captures did not differ among treatments in 2007. Total shrew captures did not differ among treatments in either year. Decreases in leaf litter and canopy cover in the mechanical + twice-burned treatment may have led to decreases in moisture and therefore decreases in southeastern shrew captures. Our long-term results, after 2 prescribed burns, differ from results after 1 prescribed burn, after which eastern fence lizard (Sceloporus undulatus) captures were greater in mechanical + burn treatments but salamander captures did not differ among treatments. Low-intensity fuel reduction treatments in the southern Appalachian Mountains do not appear to greatly affect reptile, amphibian, or shrew populations. However, multiple (>2) high intensity burns may benefit lizards but negatively affect salamanders and some shrew species, at least temporarily.

Stocking grass carp Ctenopharyngodon idella is a commonly applied technique used to control nuisance aquatic vegetation in reservoirs. Factors that influence the degree of aquatic vegetation control are stocking density, regional climate, abundance and species composition of the aquatic plant community, and relative grass carp feeding preferences for the plant species. We evaluated high-density grass carp stocking in a reservoir for control of parrot-feather (Myriophyllum aquaticum, an invasive aquatic plant that is not preferentially consumed by grass carp) and the associated effects on water quality and native fishes. Lookout Shoals Lake, a piedmont North Carolina reservoir, was stocked with triploid grass carp at a density of 100 fish per vegetated hectare. Parrot-feather biomass in the lake was significantly reduced three months after grass carp stocking, compared to biomass in in-situ exclosures. During the second year after grass carp stocking, parrot-feather biomass in the lake compared to biomass in in-situ exclosures indicated continued control, but unexplained lack of growth within most experimental exclosures precluded biomass analyses. Increases in ambient water chlorophyll a, reactive phosphorus, and nitrate-nitrite concentrations were measured after grass carp stocking. We evaluated the native fish community using seasonal shoreline electrofishing before and after grass carp stocking. Total catch for all fish species in aggregate at shoreline transects was not significantly different after grass carp stocking by number or biomass. Catch rates of largemouth bass Micropterus salmoides, bluegill Lepomis macrochirus, and redbreast sunfish Lepomis auritus were not significantly different after grass carp stocking, but yellow perch Perca flavescens catch rates were significantly lower. The biological significance of fish distribution changes and long-term effects on lake biota remain undetermined. Our results demonstrate that intensive grass carp stocking can control an invasive aquatic plant that is not preferentially consumed by grass carp, and reveal associated changes in water quality and fish distributions.

Roads pose many threats to wildlife. One such threat, wildlife-vehicle collisions, is a danger to humans as well as wildlife. Bridges built to facilitate movement of wildlife under roads may reduce threats that exist when large mammals attempt to cross roadways. My study is the first phase of a two-stage investigation of whether a bridge designed to function as a wildlife underpass influences wildlife use of the U.S. Highway 15/501 bridge over New Hope Creek (NHC) near Durham, North Carolina. This underpass is important as a wildlife passage, particularly for white-tailed deer (<i>Odocoileus virginianus</i>), because the forests associated with NHC create a corridor between two natural areas: Duke Forest to the north and B. Everett Jordan Lake to the south. Phase One involves monitoring wildlife use of the current bridge structure using video cameras. In 2007, a longer bridge will be constructed. Phase Two will be the replication of my study upon completion of the new bridge. Wildlife use of the current and future underpass will be compared to determine whether underpass dimensions influence wildlife use of the underpass. Wildlife use of the NHC underpass was recorded continuously from December 2003 through May 2005. During the study period, 126 crossings were observed in the sample of video data by the following species: white-tailed deer, woodchuck (<i>Marmota monax</i>), chipmunk (<i>Tamias striatus</i>), raccoon (<i>Procyon lotor</i>), red or gray fox (<i>Vulpes vulpes</i> or <i>Urocyon cinereoargenteus</i>), gray squirrel (<i>Sciurus carolinensis</i>), domestic dog or coyote (<i>Canis</i> spp.), domestic cat (<i>Felis catus</i>), muskrat (<i>Ondatra zibethicus</i>), hispid cotton rat (<i>Sigmodon hispidis</i>), and unidentifiable small and medium-sized mammals. Based on the sampling technique, 42.2% of wildlife crossings were observed. Thus, an estimated 299 wildlife crossings occurred throughout the study period. Seventy-five deer were observed in the sample of video data using the underpass, while 17 deer approached and retreated. Using the sampling technique, 40.5% of deer crossings and 92.1% of deer approaches were observed. Thus, an estimated 185 deer crossings and 18 approaches occurred during the study period. One-hundred forty-six people were observed near the underpass in the sample of video data. Based on the sample, 80.8% of human activity near the underpass was detected. Thus, an estimated 181 people were observed near the underpass during the study period. Five potential road crossings, including three by small mammals and two by deer, were observed in the sample of video footage. As an index of road mortality near the NHC underpass, weekly surveys of vehicle-killed animals were conducted while driving north and south on the 1.8 km section of Highway 15/501 containing the underpass from December 2003 through June 2005. The surveys revealed that five individuals were killed by vehicle collisions, including raccoon, opossum (<i>Didelphus virginiana</i>), woodchuck, wild turkey (<i>Meleagris gallapavo</i>), and one unidentifiable mammal. North Carolina Department of Transportation records of wildlife collisions occurring from January 1, 1990 through October 30, 2004 revealed that deer-vehicle collisions on the section of Highway 15/501 containing the NHC underpass were infrequent, with 16 deer-related vehicle collisions occurring. Because several years will separate the current study from the future study of the expanded NHC underpass, a deer abundance index was developed using counts of deer observed during a driving route along roads west and north of the NHC underpass. From March 23, 2004 through May 31, 2005, 205 deer were observed during 53 driving counts. These data suggest that the Highway 15/501 underpass provides landscape connectivity between habitats on opposite sides of the highway and likely increases motorist safety by providing deer and other wildlife with an alternate route for reaching habitat on the far side of the highway without crossing onto the road.

In this study, the effectiveness of vaccination against Yersinia ruckeri, using an autogenous bacterin, in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) was assessed. In addition, the immune response detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was evaluated. Rainbow trout were vaccinated at 25 grams mean body weight by standard bath immersion and intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection (saline-based injection or oil-based adjuvant injection). Bath-challenges occurred on days 42, 101, 181, 286, and 381 post-vaccination. Plasma samples were collected pre-challenge and fourteen days post-challenge for antibody titer analysis. Antibody kinetics were followed prior to first challenge. Relative percent survival (RPS) ranged from 98.96% to 96.85% and did not statistically differ among vaccinated groups. Increased antibody titer was identified in the oil-based adjuvant injection vaccinated group however, statistical significance among vaccinated groups was not determined.