It is common knowledge that water is one of the basic needs for human beings. However, the consumption of contaminated water can lead to waterborne diseases and fatalities. It is, therefore imperative to constantly monitor the quality of potable water. There are numerous technologies used for water quality monitoring. These technologies are relatively effective however these tests are expensive and complex to use, which then require experienced technicians to operate them. Other tests are not rapid, making consumers of water susceptible to waterborne diseases. In this study, dye-doped, surface functionalized silica nanoparticles (SiNPs) and surface-functionalized magnetic nanocomposites (MNCs) were proposed as materials that can be applied in order to reduce the time taken to get results as well as to make the processes less complex and portable. The aim of this study was to synthesize and characterize surface functionalized dye-doped SiNPs and surface functionalized MNCs for detection and preconcentration of in water. Additionally, proof of concept had to be shown using the synthesized materials. SiNPs were the materials of choice due to their easily functionalized surfaces and their strong optical properties. SiNPs are photostable and they do not leach in solution due to the inert nature of the silica matrix in aqueous media. MNCs were chosen as materials of choice for preconcentration of E. coli in water because they are easy to synthesize and they can be applied in various biological applications due to their functional groups. SiNPs were synthesized using the water-in-oil microemulsion. The SiNPs were further functionalized with amine and carboxyl groups and avidin. Thereafter, they were bioconjugated with biotinylated anti-E. coli antibodies. The pure and surface functionalized SiNPs were characterized using ATR-FTIR spectroscopy, FE-SEM, HR-TEM, Zeta Sizer, UV-vis spectroscopy and spectrofluorometry. The application of the dye—doped surface functionalized SiNPs in E. coli detection was characterized using the fluorescence plate reader. The SiNPs were spherical and uniform in size. They increased in size as they were being functionalized, ranging from 21.20 nm to 75.06 nm. The SiNPs were successfully functionalized with amine and carboxyl groups as well as with avidin and antibodies. Two methods were investigated for carboxyl group attachment (direct and indirect attachment) and the direct attachment method yielded the best results with a surface charge of -31.9 mV compared to -23.3 mV of the indirect method. The dye loading was found to be 1% after particle synthesis. The optical properties of the Ru(Bpy) dye were enhanced 3 fold when they were encapsulated in the Si matrix. The SiNPs were binding to the E. coli cells and enabled detection. MNCs were synthesized through in-situ polymerization. The MNCs were characterized using ATR-FTIR spectroscopy, SEM, TEM and XRD. The MNCs were successfully functionalized with carboxyl groups. The increase in size of the nanocomposites as seen in SEM images proved that the Fe3O4 was successfully encapsulated in the polymer matrix. The MNCs were proven to be magnetic by a simple magnetism test whereby they were separated in an aqueous solution using an external magnetic field. The antibody-labelled MNCs were binding to the E. coli cells as shown in TEM images. E. coli cells were removed from water at varying concentrations of 1x106 CFU/mL to 1x109 CFU/mL at 10 mL volumes. This study has demonstrated that dye-doped SiNPs amplify the signal of E. coli cells using fluorescence. The study has also demonstrated that the MNCs can be applied in sample preconcentration and enrichment for E. coli detection. However, further studies should investigate and optimize the combination of the two techniques in a point of use device for water quality testing of 100 mL-samples as per the requirement of the SANS 241 standard. / Civil and Chemical Engineering / M. Tech. (Chemical Engineering)

O uso intensivo do solo na agricultura associado ao consumo de fertilizantes nitrogenados tem causado a degradação acelerada dos recursos naturais e dos mananciais. A presente pesquisa teve como objetivo avaliar a lixiviação dos íons nitrato (NO3-) e amônio (NH4+) em colunas indeformadas de solo de uma pedossequência (cabeceira de drenagem), no município de Ponta Grossa, Paraná, analisando o comportamento dos solos em relação à susceptibilidade à contaminação da água pela lixiviação destes íons. Foram coletadas amostras de solo indeformadas de 0,5 m de comprimento, nas profundidades de 0 a 0,50 m e de 0,50 a 1,00 m. Nas amostras à granel foram efetuadas análises de macro e micronutrientes, da acidez atual e potencial, do teor de matéria orgânica e da granulometria nas camadas de 0-0,1 m, 0,1-0,2 m, 0,2-0,3 m, 0,3-0,5 m e 0,5-1,0 m de profundidade. Para determinação das porosidades (macro, micro e total) dos solos foram feitas coletas de amostras em anéis volumétricos nas mesmas profundidades das amostras à granel. Os solos descritos e amostrados foram os seguintes: Latossolo Bruno* Distrófico rubrico (não-hidromórfico), Cambissolo Húmico Distrófico gleissólico (semi-hidromórfico) e Gleissolo Melânico Tb Distrófico típico (hidromórfico). Nas colunas foram adicionadas quantidades de ureia e NPK equivalente a adubação recomendada para um ano e o volume de água adicionado foi equivalente a um ano de precipitação pluvial. Foram determinadas as concentrações de NO3- pelo método colorimétrico do salicilato e de NH4+ pelo sistema FIA (Análise de Injeção de Fluxo) nas amostras de água eluídas nos solos. Os resultados das análises foram submetidos à análise de variância e as médias comparadas pelo teste de Tukey ao nível de 5% de probabilidade, utilizando o programa SAS. A partir dos resultados obtidos concluiu-se que: o volume de eluição para os solos da coluna de superfície foi maior para o Gleissolo e Latossolo em relação ao Cambissolo, provavelmente devido a compactação desse último. Ao contrário do solo das colunas de superfície, a subsuperfície do Cambissolo apresentou o maior volume de eluição em relação ao Latossolo; as colunas de solo de superfície apresentaram maior lixiviação de N-NH4+ e N-NO3- no Latossolo em relação ao Cambissolo e Gleissolo. Na subsuperfície, tanto a lixiviação de N-NH4+ como a lixiviação de N-NO3- não diferenciou estatisticamente no Latossolo e Cambissolo. Para o N-NH4+ houve maior retenção no Latossolo em relação ao Cambissolo e o Gleissolo na camada 0,0-0,1 m e maior retenção no Cambissolo e o Gleissolo na camada de 0,1-0,2 m; nas demais camadas não houve diferença estatística. Com relação ao N-NO3- praticamente não houve retenção nos solos estudados; a lixiviação de nitrogênio nos três solos foi maior na forma N-NH4+ em relação a forma N-NO3- / The intensive use of soil in agriculture associated with the nitrogen fertilizers consumption has caused accelerated degradation of natural resources and water sources. This study aimed to evaluate leaching of nitrate (NO3-) and ammonium (NH4+) ions in undisturbed soils columns of a pedossequence in the county of Ponta Grossa, Paraná (Brazil) (25o09\' S, 50o16\' W) and to analyse the behavior of soils in relation to water contamination susceptibility by leaching of these ions. Undisturbed soil columns were colleted in these soils, in the depths from 0 to 0.5 m and from 0.5 to 1.0 m. In the disturbed soil samples were measured both macro and micronutriens, current and potential acidity, organic matter contend and particle size at depths of 0-0.1 m, 0.1-0.2 m, 0.2-0.3 m, 0.3-0.5 m and 0.5-1.0 m. To determine the porosity (macro, micro and total) of soil, undisturbed soil samples were colleted using Uhland extractor at the same depths of the disturbed ones. Soils described and sampled were the following: Latosol (non-hydromorphic), Cambisol (semi-hydromorphic) and Gleisol (hydromorphic). Urea and NPK equivalent to fertilization for one year and water equivalent to one year of rainfall were added into the soil columns. Concentrations of NO3- and NH4+ in eluate (water) samples and in the soils were determined by salicylate colorimetric method and FIA system (Flow Injection Analysis), respectively. The results were subjected to variance analysis and means compared by Tukey test at 5% probability, using the SAS program. From this experiment it a could be concluded that: (i) the elution water volume for surface soil columns (0.0-0.5 m) was higher for Gleisol and Latosol in relation to Cambisol, probably due to compaction of Cambisol and, in contrast, for subsurface soil columns (0.5-1.0 m), the elution water volume was higher in Cambisol than Latosol; (ii) in surface soil columns, N-NH4+ and N-N0-3 lixiviations were higher in Latosol in relation to Cambisol and Gleisol and, in subsurface soil columns, both N-NH4+ and N-N0-3 lixiviations were not significantly different in Latosol and Cambisol; (iii) there was higher N-NH4+ retention in Latosol in relation to Cambisol and Gleisol only in 0.0-0.1 m soil layer and a higher N-NH4+ retention in Cambisol and Gleisol in relation to Latosol only in 0.1-0.2 m soil layer, whereas with respect to N-N03-, there was no retention in any soil layers in studied soils; (iv) nitorogen lixiviation in the three soils was higher as N-NH4+ than N-N0-3.

Os agrotóxicos, quando presentes na água, são definidos como micropoluentes: mesmo em baixas concentrações, conferem à água características de toxicidade. Aponta-se o RS como o quarto estado do Brasil com maior volume de vendas anuais de agrotóxicos, chegando a mais de 50 mil toneladas por ano. Desde 2014 está em vigência no território gaúcho uma portaria estadual que acrescenta a exigência de 46 parâmetros de agrotóxicos no padrão de potabilidade da água, além dos 27 já exigidos pela portaria nacional. Neste trabalho, 89 pesticidas foram avaliados conforme três métodos teóricos de predição de risco de contaminação em mananciais subterrâneos e superficiais: índice Ground Ubiquity Score (GUS), método Screening da USEPA e método de GOSS, baseados nas propriedades físico-químicas dos pesticidas. Nos anos de 2015 e 2016, foram realizadas 143 coletas de água para consumo humano em 45 municípios da bacia hidrográfica do Alto Jacuí (G-50), a que possui a maior taxa de aplicação de agrotóxicos do estado, para análises de vigilância através de laboratório contratado, envolvendo os 89 pesticidas presentes na portaria nacional e estadual. Em paralelo, 183 pesticidas presentes em uma solução-padrão foram empregados no desenvolvimento de um novo método de análise multiresíduos, com etapas de pré-tratamento por filtração seguidas por extração em fase sólida e LC-MS/MS, aplicada para os três maiores municípios da G-50 (Carazinho, Soledade e Cruz Alta) em amostras de água bruta e tratada, durante quatro períodos de aplicação de agrotóxicos dos principais cultivos agrícolas da região. Dos pesticidas mencionados nas portarias nacional e estadual, 12 foram classificados com o maior risco de contaminação tanto em água superficial e subterrânea de acordo com os três métodos teóricos empregadas. Nas análises de vigilância foi detectado permetrina em Carazinho e alaclor em Espumoso. No método desenvolvido, 75 pesticidas foram validados de acordo com os critérios propostos e atingiram limites de detecção (LD) e limites de quantificação (LQ) que variaram de 10 a 300 ng L-1. Na aplicação do método nas coletas dos três municípios da G-50 não houve detecção de nenhum pesticida. / Agrochemicals, when present in water, are defined as micropollutants, thus giving the water toxic characteristics, even at low concentrations. The Rio Grande do Sul state in Brazil was found to rank fourth in annual agrochemical sales in the country, surpassing 50 thousand tons per year. A state regulation in effect in the RS state since 2014 requires the inclusion of 46 new agrochemical parameters concerning the standards for potable drinking water, in addition to 27 existing parameters mandated by national ordinance. Seventy-five pesticides were evaluated based on three theoretical methodologies of contamination risk prediction in underground and surface water sources, by measuring the physicochemical properties of pesticides: GUS index, USEPA screening method and Goss method. In 2015 and 2016, 143 water samples were collected from sources of potable water in 45 municipalities located in the Alto Jacuí river basin, a region which has the highest pesticide application rate in the RS state. A private laboratory analyzed samples from 89 pesticides present in the national and state regulation. Paralely, 183 pesticides were evaluated by a new multi-residue analysis method. Filtration was conducted in the pre-treatment steps, followed by a solid phase extraction liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry analysis (SPE-LC-MS/MS) of raw and treated water samples from the three largest G-50 municipalities (Carazinho, Soledade and Cruz Alta), during the four pesticide application periods of the main crops cultivated in the region. Twelve pesticides were classified as of high risk in terms of contamination for both surface and groundwater, in accordance with the three theoretical methodologies implemented. During analysis of the surveillance data collected, the pesticides permethrin and alachlor were found in Carazinho and Espumoso, respectively. Through the methodology developed, 75 pesticides were evaluated according to the criteria proposed, reaching lower detection limit (LD) and quantification limit (LQ) ranging from 10 to 300 ng L-1, respectively. During the implementation of the methodology for sample collections in the three G-50 municipalities, no pesticides were detected.

Magister Philosophiae - MPhil / The South African Constitution, 1996 has placed the right to sufficient water as a Constitutional right. The provision of this right by the Constitution intends to redress the violation of human rights, to ensure that South Africa’s scarce water resources are protected from pollution and that every South African, including the poor and the marginalised, enjoys them. Consequently, the Constitution has placed a legal obligation on the government to realise the right to have access to sufficient water. In order for the government to fulfil its obligation to provide water as a right for present and future generations, it will need to implement the relevant legislation effectively to protect the country’s water resources. This study analyses Section 27 of the Constitution, which provides for the right to access to water, and the role of sustainability in conserving and protecting water resources, given the recurring water challenges.

M. Tech. Chemical Engineering / The lack of clean and fresh water has become a worldwide problem because of water pollution caused by industrialization. Contamination of natural water sources by heavy metal is a worldwide public health problem, leading to waterborne outbreaks of infectious hepatitis, viral gastroenteritis, and cancer. Therefore it very important to remove these toxic metal ions from municipal and industrial effluents in order to protect plants, animals and human beings from their adverse effect before discharging into natural water bodies. Although, several separation methods such as filtration, reverse osmosis and membrane technology have been developed to remove these toxic heavy metal ions from wastewater, however these conventional treatments technologies were found to be expensive on a sustainable basis. Adsorption process was identified as the most effective, and extensively used essential process in wastewater treatment, and in order for adsorption process to feasibly remove pollutants from wastewater, there should be a need for a suitable adsorbent which will have a large porous surface area, and a controllable porous structure. Through the application of nanotechnology, nano adsorbents can be developed as effective adsorbents to treat wastewater. The main objective of this project was to apply magnetic metal doped iron oxides as an efficient adsorption media for the removing of Cr(VI), Cd(II) and V(V) ions from wastewater.

A DNA microarray capable of detecting 445 virulence factors (VFs) and antibiotic resistance genes was used to assess human and animal fecal E. coli isolates for pathogenic potential and host specificity. The only enteric pathotype detected was atypical EPEC, which was found in 3.7% of all isolates. 17% of human isolates were extraintestinal pathotypes, with the majority of these being uropathogenic. Isolates from humans and chickens were the most likely to have resistance to at least one class of antibiotic. VFs that were found almost exclusively in human isolates, when compared to one other group, included sat (10% of human isolates and no animal isolates), iucD and iut (24% of human, <1% mammal) and iha (16% human, <1% wild avian). Decision trees utilizing multiple probes to identify the source of an E. coli isolate were able to correctly identify the source of 79% of validation isolates in a human vs. animal comparison. / Environment Canada

The bacterium Aeromonas hydrophila is a known fish and opportunistic human pathogen commonly occurring in surface waters supplying drinking water distribution systems. The major concern of government and drinking water providers is that A. hydrophila may invade and become established in the biofilm of a distribution system, thus potentially leading to outbreaks of disease. The purpose of this study was to survey source water, distribution system biofilm, and to establish a simulated distribution system to explore the possibility of A. hydrophila invading and becoming established under normal and disrupted treatment conditions. A. hydrophila (AH) medium and the API-20E system were used for identification, while Ampicillin-Dextrin Agar (ADA) was used for enumeration. Presumptive counts were high in source water approaching 103 CFU/ml during summer months. Biofiim from an actual distribution system showed the presence of A. hydrophila in 10 % of the samples. In the simulated distribution system A. hydrophila was never found in the bulk water or biofilm under normal treatment condition, showing disinfectant efficiency. Under disrupted treatment conditions A. hydrophila was not able to colonize a pre-established biofilm over a 14 week period. / Department of Biology

Recently the EPA placed Aeromonas hydrophila on the Candidate Contaminant List (CCL). It has long been known to be a pathogen of cold blooded animals and now is a suspected human opportunistic pathogen as well. Among the various virulence factors produced by A. hydrophila, the cytolytic enterotoxin (AHCYTOEN) is by far one of the most important contributors to the pathogenicity of the organism. This factor is also produced by other pathogenic Aeromonas spp. In this study, PCR technology was used to detect AHCYTOEN gene from a simulated water distribution system. A set of primers was selected to amplify the unique sequence of a pathogenic island, AHCYTOEN gene. To examine the sensitivity of the PCR, serial dilutions of pure A. hydrophila culture were tested. The PCR technique used was sensitive enough to detect samples containing less than 10.0 cells/ml. Source water, bulk water, and simulated distribution biofilm samples were examined for the gene. Biofilm and bulk water samples exposed to raw source water were collected on 4 occasions during a 24-day period. PCR technology detected the AHCYTOEN gene from 100 % of the bulk water samples and 85% of tightly bound biofilm (TB) samples from a simulated water distribution system while no positive results were observed in loosely bound biofilm samples (LB). After the inlet line of the system was changed to normally treated distribution water, 11 biofilm samples were collected on 3 occasions during 15 day sampling period along with bulk water samples. No positive results were observed from the bulk water and LB samples while 91% of TB samples tested for the presence of the gene. No significant difference was observed in detection by PCR from biofilm samples before and after the switch to chloraminated water. / Department of Biology

Both rice production and fish culture in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam have a close mutual relationship with the use of water and land resources. First, they are competitive in the use of land and water. Second, rice production discharges pesticides into water bodies causing an external cost to fish culture, which, in turn, leads to an increase in fish cost and price. A dynamic model for maximizing the social surplus is developed for optimal management of resources as well as production. Its first-order conditions provide some important quantitative as well as qualitative interpretation that explains the dynamic relationships among prices, water quality, and shadow price. The time paths and phase diagrams of the model show the variations and the changes in prices, outputs, and water quality over time, and the initial position in regions leading to divergence or convergence. As a result, effective policies are set up to maximize social welfare. Data are collected and used in estimations of demand functions of rice and fish, the function of assimilative capacity, the fish cost function, and the parameter of pesticide discharge. The total loss of fish culture (total external cost in the year 2001) due to pesticide use is about 9 billion $US. Two cases of linear and nonlinear forms are simulated with scenarios of initial values for the year 2001. The simulation shows optimistic results with prices going down and water quality going up over time, meaning the social surplus will rise. The phase diagram shows that the social manager should look for policies to raise the initial value of water quality to get an optimal solution. A comparative analysis of the model simulation shows the directions of change in parameters leading to a change in the steady state values. How to change the parameter values is analyzed and the analysis suggests different policies.

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