Since their discovery in 1973, rotaviruses have been reported to be responsible for waterborne outbreaks of gastroenteritis. The simian rotavirus (SA11) was used as a model for the human strains during the development of the method for concentration of rotaviruses from drinking and naturally occurring waters. The microporous filter method developed was capable of recovering an average of 49% of the input virus from 20 liters of tap water and an average of 31% from 378 liters. Of the various eluents evaluated, a mixture of 10% tryptose phosphate broth and 3% beef extract (pH 10.0) was found to give the greatest efficiency of elution. The 1MDS filters were found to be superior to the 50S for the concentration of SA11. The method developed was successfully used to concentrate viruses from environmental waters. Indigenous viruses were isolated from waters in Bolivia and Colombia. Several treatment plants as well as raw surface and groundwaters were sampled for the presence of entero— and rotaviruses. Rotaviruses were isolated from one sample which had undergone complete treatment and met all current standards for potability. This study indicated that enteric viruses can be found in drinking waters considered safe due to the absence of indicator bacteria. Prior to this study there were no reports of the occurrence of enteric viruses in water in Colombia or Bolivia. The results of this study also indicate the need for some type of virus monitoring of waters which are contaminated with sewage in order to evaluate the impact of these viruses on the population.

The search for alternative water disinfectants to those commonly used, such as chlorine, probably began when the disadvantages of those disinfectants became known. Soluble disinfectants have short half-lives and need to be replenished periodically which requires monitoring the determination of appropriate concentrations for waters being treated. This disadvantage may be balanced by the ability to alter dose concentrations of soluble disinfectants to meet changes in demands. Maintenance of a residual disinfectant concentration which can act throughout a water distribution system is another advantage of soluble disinfectants. Disadvantages due to reaction of organic materials include the loss of disinfecting capability, health hazards related to the disinfectant and the potential loss of aesthetic water qualities such as taste, smell and color. The purpose of this study was to investigate different surface contact disinfectants which, while having an inflexible dose concentration capability and releasing no residual disinfectant concentration, do not require monitoring and do not significantly leach into the waters they contact. Powdered aluminum when mixed with a loamy sand reduces virus concentration 3-4 orders of magnitude better than controls while not significantly altering the pH or aluminum concentration of waters that pass through the soil columns. Labeled poliovirus 1 was found to adsorb onto the aluminum surface in batch experiments and undergo degradation or dissociation of the capsid proteins with release of viral fragments and clumps within 76 hours. Freon dispersion of the viral clumps showed the clumps to be non-infective. Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of poliovirus 1 incubated with aluminum for 76 hours suggested degradation or dissociation of viral capsid proteins 1, 2 and 3. Magnesium peroxide and magnesium oxide, while effectively inactivating viruses, significantly increase the pH of water which they contact. Polyhalex resin and I5 resin reduce virus concentration, but release functional groups into the surrrounding water. Contact disinfectants such as aluminum, may find point-of-use application for drinking water, use in septic tank leachfields or sewage treatment infiltration basins to reduce the threat of spreading potential disease-causing organisms.

The isolation of viruses from treated drinking water has raised concerns that water treatment methods may not always adequately insure the removal of viruses from water designated for human consumption. The isolation of enteroviruses and rotavIruses from treated drinking water in a distribution system and at a water treatment plant has been previously reported. Isolation of viruses from drinking water that met recommended levels of coliform bacteria, chlorine and turbidity. The question is raised as to whether or not current drinking water standards ensure safe drinking water. The isolation of enteroviruses and rotaviruses from treated drinking water In a distribution system and at a water treatment plant. This study reports the results of a more extensive investigation on the removal of naturally occurring viruses by water treatment processes including prechlorination/clarification, filtration, and chlorination at a fullscale water treatment plant. The removal of enteroviruses and rotaviruses was studied at a full scale 205 mgd water treatment plant involving chemical clarification, sand filtration and chlorination. Enteric viruses, as well as coliphages, indicator bacteria, physical and chemical variables were measured in water samples taken at each stage of the drinking water treatment facility. Linear intercorrel ations were analyzed for all the variables. The numbers of standard plate count bacteria and coliphage were positively correlated to the presence of enteroviruses in the raw water while coliphage counts were positively correlated to the presence of rotaviruses in the finished water. Samples were taken during the dry and rainy seasons. During the dry season, it was found that reduction of enteroviruses and rotaviruses averaged 81% and 93%, respectively, for the complete treatment process and were the least efficiently removed as compared to the other microorganisms. The greatest reduction of enterovIruses occurred during pre-chlorination/flocculation and filtration, while a significant reduction of rotav I ru ses occurred during prechlorination/ flocculation and final chlorination. Enteroviruses or rotaviruses occurred in 24% of the finished water samples containing chlorine levels of >0.2 mg/L, and meeting coliform bacteria (1/100 ml) and turbidity (1 NTU) standards. During the rainy season removals were found to be far less efficient for all the variables and rotaviruses were isolated from all finished water samples. The results of this study indicate that finished water having measurable levels of free residual chlorine and meeting standards for col iform bacteria, and turbidity cannot be assumed to be virus free.