A agricultura demanda grande quantidade de água para a produção de alimentos e fibras. Técnicas que determinem e monitorem a dinâmica da água no solo são importantes para promover o uso correto e consciente desse recurso natural. Diante do exposto, a tensiometria é uma ferramenta eficiente na determinação da dinâmica da água em solos agrícolas, podendo ser utilizada em conjunto com sensores de capacitância para a caracterização da curva de retenção de água no solo. Contudo, apesar de práticos, erros associados à instalação e às características das cápsulas podem comprometer a precisão dos tensiômetros. Esse trabalho teve como objetivo testar a influência do uso de lama de solo no momento da instalação, bem como o formato e condutância hidráulica de cápsulas de tensiômetros de punção sobre o potencial matricial da água no solo, tendo-se como referência tensiômetros com manômetro de mercúrio. Também, se objetivou determinar a curva de retenção de água no solo com base nos dados obtidos por tensiometria e de um sensor de capacitância. Os resultados mostram que o formato das cápsulas de cerâmica e a lama de solo influenciaram as determinações do potencial matricial, ao contrário da condutância hidráulica das cápsulas. A lama de solo é indicada na instalação de tensiômetros com manômetro de mercúrio e de punção. As curvas de retenção diferiram quanto aos sistemas de aquisição (manômetro de mercúrio ou tensímetro); no entanto, o modelo ajustado não foi sensível em distinguir diferenças entre os tratamentos quanto ao formato das cápsulas ou uso de lama de solo. De modo geral, ocorreu uma subestimativa dos ajustes das curvas de retenção para os tensiômetros de punção, o que pode levar a interpretações errôneas das curvas de retenção de água no solo quando determinadas por meio desses instrumentos. / The agriculture demand large amounts of water for food and fiber production. The techniques used to determine and monitor the water dynamics in the soil are important to promote the correct and conscious use of this natural resource. Given the above, the tensiometry is an efficient tool for the determination the water dynamics in soils, which can be used in conjunction with capacitance sensors to characterize the water retention curve in the soil. However, although practical, errors associated with the installation and the characteristics of the capsules may compromise the accuracy of tensiometers. This study aimed to test the influence of the use of soil slurry during the tensiometer installation, the format and hydraulic conductance of the capsules from puncture tensiometers on the matric potential of soil water, taking as reference tensiometers equipped with mercury manometers. In addition, aimed to determine the soil-water retention curve based on data obtained by tensiometry and a capacitance sensor. The results shows that the format of the ceramic capsules and the use of the slurry influenced the measurements of matric potential, as opposed to hydraulic conductance of the capsules. The soil slurry is recommended for tensiometers equiped with mercury manometer and puncture tensiometers. The retention curves differed among the acquisition systems (mercury manometer or tensimeter); however, the fitted model was not sensitive enough to distinguish differences between treatments for the format of the capsules or the use of soil slurry. In general, there was an underestimation of the retention curve for puncture tensiometers, which can lead to erroneous interpretations of the soil-water retention curve when determined by these instruments.

Resumo: A cana-de-açúcar (Saccharum spp.) é uma das principais culturas das regiões tropicais, cuja produtividade agrícola pode ser afetada pelo déficit hídrico. Para investigar o processo de tolerância e sensibilidade ao déficit hídrico, diferentes parâmetros fisiológicos foram avaliados em cultivares de cana-de-açúcar tolerantes (SP83-2847 e CTC15) e sensível (SP86-155) ao déficit hídrico. A deficiência hídrica afetou todo o aparato fotossintético das plantas de forma diferenciada dentro e entre as cultivares. A taxa fotossintética e condutância estomática diminuíram significativamente para todas as cultivares submetidas ao estresse. Nas plantas controle das cultivares (cv) tolerantes SP83-2847 e CTC15 observou-se que a taxa fotossintética apresentou valores mais altos em comparação a cultivar sensível SP86-155. Resultados do teor relativo de água mostraram que a cultivar CTC15 apresentou melhor condição hídrica durante o período de déficit hídrico. A eficiência quântica do fotossistema II da cultivar SP83-2847 mostrou maior estabilidade nos últimos dias do tratamento experimental, sugerindo que o decréscimo do teor relativo de água estimulou o ajuste da capacidade fotossintética frente às alterações da disponibilidade hídrica. De modo geral, as cultivares SP83-2847 e CTC15, consideradas tolerantes, sob déficit hídrico exibiram melhor desempenho em relação a cultivar sensível SP86-155. Os dados permitem sugerir que tais parâmetros fisiológicos podem ser empregados na avaliação e distinção de genótipos de cana-de-açúcar tolerantes e sensíveis ao déficit hídrico. / Abstract: The sugarcane (Saccharum spp.) is one of the main crops cultivated in tropical areas, whose agricultural productivity can be affected by drought. To investigate the tolerance and sensitivity process to water deficit, various physiological parameters were evaluated in sugarcane cultivars considered tolerant (SP83-2847 and CTC15) and sensitive (SP86-155) to drought. The water deficit affected the entire photosynthetic apparatus of all plants in different manners, inside and among cultivars. The photosynthetic rate and stomatal conductance decreased significantly for all cultivars, submitted to water stress. In control plants of the tolerant cultivars SP83-2847 and CTC15, it was observed that the photosynthetic rate showed better values in comparison to sensitive cultivar SP86-155. According to relative water content results of the cultivar CTC15 showed better condition water performance during the drought. The quantum efficiency photosystem II of the cultivar SP83-2847 showed greater stability in recent days of the experimental treatment, suggesting that the decline in the relative water content stimulated the adjustment of photosynthetic capacity to face the changes in water availability. Thus, cultivars SP83-2847 and CTC15, considered tolerant under water deficit, showed better performance in comparison to sensitive cultivar SP86-155. The data suggest that these physiological parameters can be used in the evaluation and distinction of drought tolerant and sensitive sugarcane genotypes. / Orientador: Sonia Marli Zingaretti / Coorientador: Clara Beatriz Hoffmann-Campo / Banca: Rinaldo Cesar de Paula / Banca: José Renato Bouças Farias / Mestre

As sementes de maracujá-amarelo perdem rapidamente o poder germinativo quando são arbitrariamente armazenadas; assim, buscando embasamento para a definição de alternativas tecnológicas voltadas à desaceleração da deterioração durante o armazenamento, o objetivo da pesquisa foi o de estudar, através de variações no teor de água das sementes e na temperatura do ambiente, o comportamento fisiológico de sementes de maracujazeiro. A experimentação, realizada entre julho de 2002 e agosto de 2003 no Laboratório de Análise de Sementes localizado na Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz/ USP, foi conduzida com sementes de maracujá-amarelo (Passiflora edulis Sims f. flavicarpa Deg.) produzidas em Mogi Mirim/ SP a partir de polinização aleatória entre plantas da Série IAC 270. Após a retirada da mucilagem das sementes, foi determinado o grau de umidade inicial do lote e, paralelamente, obtida a amostra representante do tratamento com o maior teor de água estudado (31%); as sementes remanescentes foram submetidas à secagem, em estufa com circulação de ar a 30°C ± 3°C, para a obtenção dos demais tratamentos referentes aos teores de água desejados (27%, 21%, 17%, 11% e 7%). Posteriormente, os tratamentos, correspondentes aos diferentes graus de umidade, foram armazenados em câmaras com temperaturas controladas de 10°C, 15°C e 20°C. Antes do armazenamento, e após 35, 70, 105, 140, 175, 210, 245, 280, 315 e 350 dias, as sementes foram submetidas às avaliações da qualidade. De acordo com os resultados obtidos, a combinação do grau de umidade de 7% com a temperatura de 10°C supera as demais no favorecimento à manutenção do potencial fisiológico das sementes de Passiflora edulis Sims f. flavicarpa Deg. / Yellow passion fruit seeds quickly lose the germination capacity when erratically stored; thus, seeding grounds to define technological alternatives to delay deterioration during storage, the goal of this research was to study the physiological behavior of passion fruit (Passiflora edulis Sims f. flavicarpa Deg.) seeds through varied seed water content and environmental temperature. The experiment was conducted at the Seed Analysis Laboratory of the Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz - USP, from July 2002 through August 2003, with yellow passion fruit seeds produced in Mogi Mirim/ SP, through random pollination among IAC 270 Series plants. Following seed mucilage removal, the initial moisture degree of the lot was determined and the representative sample of the treatment with the highest water content studied (31%) was obtained concurrently; the remaining seeds were dried in na air-circulating oven at 30°C ± 3°C to achieve other treatments regarding the intended water contents (27%, 21%, 17%, 11% and 7%). Further, the treatments - corresponding to different moisture levels - were stored in controlled-temperature chambers at 10°C, 15°C and 20°C. Previous to storage and 35, 70, 105, 140, 175, 210, 245, 280, 315 and 350 days later, the seeds were submited to quality assays. The results indicate that the combination between 7% moisture degree and 10°C temperature overcomes the remaining ones towards favoring the maintenance of the physiological potential of Passiflora edulis Sims f. flavicarpa Deg. seeds.

As características hidráulicas do solo têm uma importância fundamental relacionada à disponibilidade de água para as plantas e ao transporte de solutos no solo. O modelo bifásico ou "móvel-imóvel" presume que o teor de água no solo (θ) pode ser dividido em duas frações: uma fração móvel (θm) e uma outra imóvel (θim). Define-se mobilidade μ da água no solo como a razão θm/θ. Correlações entre as funções θ(h), K(h) e μ(h) são esperadas, uma vez que essas três propriedades são relacionadas com a mesma estrutura do sistema poroso do solo. O objetivo do presente trabalho foi apresentar uma hipótese correlacionando a função mobilidade com a de condutividade, e testá-la através de dados obtidos segundo uma metodologia de laboratório desenvolvida. O experimento foi realizado em Piracicaba, SP e em Braunschweig, Alemanha. Amostras indeformadas de cinco solos (Latossolo Vermelho-Amarelo, no Brasil e Orthic Luvisol, Stagno-gleyic Luvisol, Dystric Podzoluvisol e Gleyic Podzoluvisol, na Alemanha) foram coletadas para a determinação das propriedades hidráulicas de retenção e mobilidade da água no solo. O método utilizado para a determinação da mobilidade da água consistiu na aplicação de um volume de água contendo o íon Cl- como traçador (um "pulso hidráulico") à amostra de solo sob sucção com o objetivo de simular eventos de chuva ou irrigação, que promovem uma alteração hidráulica rápida no solo. A difusão do íon entre as frações móvel e imóvel foi considerada desprezível, uma vez que o pulso hidráulico foi aplicado em uma única parcela e diretamente no solo, tornando o processo relativamente rápido. Resultados obtidos nos cinco solos avaliados indicam a existência de uma correlação linear entre μ e o valor de K/(dK/dθ), conforme hipotetizado. Utilizando o sistema de equações de Van Genuchten – Mualem, μ(h) pode portanto ser estimado por parâmetros da curva de retenção. A metodologia proposta permitiu a determinação da mobilidade da água em amostras de solo sob condições laboratoriais. A mobilidade da água mostrou ser uma função do volume relativo (v) aplicado podendo a relação μ – v ser parametrizada pelo ajuste de uma equação simples, com apenas um parâmetro. Não foi possível averiguar a existência de uma relação empírica entre esse parâmetro e os parâmetros da equação de Van Genuchten, possivelmente em função do número pequeno de dados disponíveis. / Soil hydraulic properties are essential for the determination of plant water availability and solute transport into the soil. The biphasic or mobile-immobile model concept assumes the soil water content (θ) to be divided in two fractions: a mobile fraction (θm) and an immobile fraction (θim). Soil water mobility, μ is defined as the ratio θm/&#952. Relationships between θ (h), K(h) e μ (h) are probable since these properties are related to the same soil pore structure. The objective of this study was to test a hypothesis regarding a correlation between the mobility function and the hydraulic conductivity function, using a new developed laboratory method to determine soil water mobility. The experiments were conducted in Piracicaba, Brazil and in Braunschweig, Germany. Undisturbed soil samples were collected in five soils (Oxisol, in Brazil, Orthic Luvisol, Stagno-gleyic Luvisol, Dystric Podzoluvisol e Gleyic Podzoluvisol, in Germany) to determine hydraulic properties and soil water mobility. The method used to determine water mobility consists in a water volume with Cl- ion as a tracer ("hydraulic pulse") applied to a soil sample under suction, simulating a rainfall or irrigation event leading to abrupt hydraulic changes. The ion diffusion between the mobile and immobile water fractions was negligible as the hydraulic pulse was applied directly to the soil in a relatively short process. Results of five evaluated soils indicate the existence of a linear correlation between μ and K/(dK/d θ), confirming the hypothesis. Using the Van Genuchten – Mualem equation system, μ(h) can therefore be estimated by retention curve parameters. The proposed laboratory method allowed determining soil water mobility in soil samples under laboratory. Soil water mobility showed to be a function of the applied relative volume (v), while the relationship μ – v could be modeled by a simple, one-parameter equation, however, it was not possible to verify the existence of an empirical relation between this parameter and parameters from the Van Genuchten equation, possibly due to small number of available data.

O conhecimento da condutividade hidráulica do solo é essencial para qualquer modelagem que envolva o movimento da água no solo. Além de variar com a umidade, a condutividade hidráulica do solo (K) apresenta alta variabilidade espacial, tanto em determinações no campo como no laboratório, podendo ser representada em função da umidade (θ) ou do potencial matricial (ψm). Conforme indica a Lei de Poiseuille, a condutância de poros individuais é altamente sensível ao seu diâmetro. Como a distribuição dos diâmetros de poros de um solo é descrita pela sua curva de retenção e o maior poro que contém água define o potencial matricial, a hipótese do presente trabalho é que, expressando-se K para um θ fixo, sua variabilidade é maior que para um ψm fixo. Para testar tal hipótese, foi conduzido um experimento empregando-se o método do perfil instantâneo sem evaporação (durante 1050 horas) e com evaporação (durante 401 horas) em períodos diferentes, obtendo-se a condutividade hidráulica não saturada em 48 baterias distanciadas de 1 m entre si e dispostas em linha reta em um Latossolo Vermelho-amarelo, dentro do Campus da Escola Superior de Agricultura “Luiz de Queiroz” – ESALQ/USP em Piracicaba/SP. Os valores de potencial matricial foram obtidos por tensiometria em cinco profundidades (de 0,075 a 0,675 m) para cada bateria e transformados em umidade por curvas de retenção determinadas próximas a cada bateria. Os dados foram processados conforme procedimento padrão. O experimento com evaporação permitiu a obtenção nas camadas mais superficiais de valores de condutividade hidráulica em uma faixa de umidade abaixo daquela obtida no experimento sem evaporação. Os valores estimados de K(θ) e de K(ψ) foram submetidos à análise estatística descritiva e, após a verificação da não normalidade dos dados, foram submetidos à transformação logarítmica para a normalização da densidade de distribuição. Com a comprovação da não normalidade dos dados procedeu-se à estimativa do coeficiente de variação do logaritmo da condutividade hidráulica, observando-se menor variabilidade de K(ψ) do que K(θ), na maioria dos casos, sustentando a hipótese desta tese. Na faixa de umidade avaliada, o coeficiente de variação dos valores de condutividade hidráulica aumentou com a umidade e com o potencial matricial. / The knowledge of the soil hydraulic conductivity is essential to modeling soil water movement. Soil hydraulic conductivity (K) varies with water content and has a high spatial variability as well, either in field or in laboratory determinations. It can be represented as a function of water content (θ) or pressure head (ψm). According to Poiseuille´s Law, the conductance of individual pores is strongly dependent on their diameters. Pore size distribution in a soil is described by its water retention curve, and the largest water containing pore defines pressure head. Therefore, the hypothesis of the present study is that if K is expressed at a fixed θ value, its variability is higher than if expressed at a fixed ψm value. With the purpose of testing the hypothesis, an experiment was carried out using the instantaneous profile method without evaporation (for 1050 hours) and with evaporation (for 401 hours) in different periods. The soil hydraulic conductivity was estimated at 48 locations, 1 m distant from each other on a straight line in a Typic Hapludox soil at the ESALQ/USP campus in Piracicaba/SP – Brazil. Pressure heads were obtained through tensiometry in five depths (from 0,075 to 0,675 m) and transformed in water contents by water retention curves determined close to each location. Data were processed by standard routines. The test with evaporation allowed the soil hydraulic conductivity estimation in surface layers at water contents lower than in the test without evaporation. The estimated values for K(θ) and K(ψ) were submitted to a descriptive analysis, and normalized by a log-transformation. As the density distribution was lognormal, the coefficient of variation was estimated to the log-transformed K values, and it was observed that in most cases the K(ψ) variability was less than the K(θ), in agreement with the hypothesis of this study. The coefficient of variation of the K values increased with the water content and the matric potential within the range of water contents evaluated.

O conhecimento da condutividade hidráulica do solo é essencial para qualquer modelagem que envolva o movimento da água no solo. Além de variar com a umidade, a condutividade hidráulica do solo (K) apresenta alta variabilidade espacial, tanto em determinações no campo como no laboratório, podendo ser representada em função da umidade (θ) ou do potencial matricial (ψm). Conforme indica a Lei de Poiseuille, a condutância de poros individuais é altamente sensível ao seu diâmetro. Como a distribuição dos diâmetros de poros de um solo é descrita pela sua curva de retenção e o maior poro que contém água define o potencial matricial, a hipótese do presente trabalho é que, expressando-se K para um θ fixo, sua variabilidade é maior que para um ψm fixo. Para testar tal hipótese, foi conduzido um experimento empregando-se o método do perfil instantâneo sem evaporação (durante 1050 horas) e com evaporação (durante 401 horas) em períodos diferentes, obtendo-se a condutividade hidráulica não saturada em 48 baterias distanciadas de 1 m entre si e dispostas em linha reta em um Latossolo Vermelho-amarelo, dentro do Campus da Escola Superior de Agricultura "Luiz de Queiroz" - ESALQ/USP em Piracicaba/SP. Os valores de potencial matricial foram obtidos por tensiometria em cinco profundidades (de 0,075 a 0,675 m) para cada bateria e transformados em umidade por curvas de retenção determinadas próximas a cada bateria. Os dados foram processados conforme procedimento padrão. O experimento com evaporação permitiu a obtenção nas camadas mais superficiais de valores de condutividade hidráulica em uma faixa de umidade abaixo daquela obtida no experimento sem evaporação. Os valores estimados de K(θ) e de K(ψ) foram submetidos à análise estatística descritiva e, após a verificação da não normalidade dos dados, foram submetidos à transformação logarítmica para a normalização da densidade de distribuição. Com a comprovação da não normalidade dos dados procedeu-se à estimativa do coeficiente de variação do logaritmo da condutividade hidráulica, observando-se menor variabilidade de K(ψ) do que K(θ), na maioria dos casos, sustentando a hipótese desta tese. Na faixa de umidade avaliada, o coeficiente de variação dos valores de condutividade hidráulica aumentou com a umidade e com o potencial matricial. / The knowledge of the soil hydraulic conductivity is essential to modeling soil water movement. Soil hydraulic conductivity (K) varies with water content and has a high spatial variability as well, either in field or in laboratory determinations. It can be represented as a function of water content (θ) or pressure head (ψm). According to Poiseuille´s Law, the conductance of individual pores is strongly dependent on their diameters. Pore size distribution in a soil is described by its water retention curve, and the largest water containing pore defines pressure head. Therefore, the hypothesis of the present study is that if K is expressed at a fixed θ value, its variability is higher than if expressed at a fixed ψm value. With the purpose of testing the hypothesis, an experiment was carried out using the instantaneous profile method without evaporation (for 1050 hours) and with evaporation (for 401 hours) in different periods. The soil hydraulic conductivity was estimated at 48 locations, 1 m distant from each other on a straight line in a Typic Hapludox soil at the ESALQ/USP campus in Piracicaba/SP - Brazil. Pressure heads were obtained through tensiometry in five depths (from 0,075 to 0,675 m) and transformed in water contents by water retention curves determined close to each location. Data were processed by standard routines. The test with evaporation allowed the soil hydraulic conductivity estimation in surface layers at water contents lower than in the test without evaporation. The estimated values for K(θ) and K(ψ) were submitted to a descriptive analysis, and normalized by a log-transformation. As the density distribution was lognormal, the coefficient of variation was estimated to the log-transformed K values, and it was observed that in most cases the K(ψ) variability was less than the K(θ), in agreement with the hypothesis of this study. The coefficient of variation of the K values increased with the water content and the matric potential within the range of water contents evaluated.

La quantité et la distribution de l'eau interstitielle dans l'espace poral des milieux cimentaires sont des marqueurs fondamentaux de la durabilité des structures de Génie Civil en béton. La connaissance de ces grandeurs est également importante pour l'interprétation de certains essais non destructifs mis en œuvre pour évaluer les performances mécaniques des ouvrages ou détecter certains défauts. L'évaluation de la teneur en eau par méthode non-destructive requiert l'utilisation d'une grandeur intermédiaire telle que la permittivité diélectrique. La relation entre cette propriété électromagnétique et la teneur en eau dépend alors de la composition et donc de la formulation du béton. En électromagnétisme, les lois d'homogénéisation permettent de lier la permittivité effective d'un matériau hétérogène avec la permittivité intrinsèque et la fraction volumique de chaque hétérogénéité présente. Afin de pallier le temps important requis pour l'établissement d'une courbe de calibration expérimentale propre à chaque formulation, l'étude présentée propose la mise en place d'une démarche d'homogénéisation de la permittivité pour lier quantité d'eau présente dans un béton et permittivité macroscopique du matériau. Les travaux présentés rapportent la fabrication, la modélisation et l'utilisation de sondes coaxiales ouvertes pour la mesure de la permittivité complexe de matériaux solides et liquides. Le concept d'estimation de la teneur en eau par utilisation de lois d'homogénéisation est validé pour le cas d'un sable partiellement saturé en eau. Au vu des résultats prometteurs obtenus par modélisation analytique, des schémas d'homogénéisation sont combinés lors d'un processus de remontée d'échelle depuis celle des hydrates jusqu'à celle des granulats, en tenant compte de la morphologie de la microstructure. Les propriétés intrinsèques des principaux constituants d'un béton (granulats, hydrates, ciment anhydre) sont alors mesurées par sonde coaxiale et utilisées en données d'entrée du modèle construit. Une bonne cohérence est observée entre parties réelles de la permittivité simulées et mesurées, pour des échantillons de pâtes de ciment, mortiers et bétons. A la différence des lois expérimentales et empiriques, le modèle construit se caractérise par un temps de calcul quasi-instantané et peut être adapté d'une formulation de béton à une autre en fonction du type de ciment utilisé, de la nature et de la quantité de granulats ou encore de la porosité accessible à l'eau du matériau. / Prediction of delayed behavior in concrete can be significantly improved by monitoring the amount and spatial distribution of water within a concrete structure over time. Water content of cement-based materials can also be required to interpret non-destructive tests such as ultrasonic and radar measurements. Electromagnetic properties of heterogeneous and porous materials, such as dielectric permittivity, are closely related to water content. Measurement of these properties is thus a common non-destructive technique used to assess the moisture content, but a calibration curve is required to link the measured permittivity to the saturation degree. This curve can be determined experimentally, or from empirical models. However, the first approach is tedious and time consuming, while the second one is not adapted to concrete. Hence, this contribution proposes an alternative route, relying on electromagnetic homogenization schemes, to connect the macroscopic permittivity of cement-based materials with the water content of the structure. Therefore, different open-ended coaxial probes were designed, modelled and tested in order to perform complex permittivity measurements of both solids and liquids. The homogenization approach is first validated on unsaturated sand. Then, the permittivity of concrete components (aggregates, hydrates, interstitial liquid, anhydrous cement) was assessed by means of coaxial probe measurements. Finally, a specific combination of analytical homogenization laws taking into account the microstructure's morphology of the material is built. Results show that there is a good correlation between the model and measurements acquired on different cement pastes, mortars and concretes, at different saturation degrees. The model is characterized by a quasi-instantaneous calculation time and can be adapted to different concretes depending on cement type, nature and quantity aggregates or porosity.

Memoria para optar al Título Profesional de Ingeniero Forestal / Peumus boldus Mol. (Boldo), es una especie endémica y característica del bosque esclerófilo. Su potencial económico está relacionado con la comercialización de sus hojas. El problema asociado a este mercado tiene relación con la sostenibilidad del recurso en el tiempo. Considerando su potencial económico, se evaluaron las respuestas morfo-fisiológicas en rebrotes nuevos y vástagos remanentes, según intensidad de corta, en la Comuna de Olmué, Región de Valparaíso. Se establecieron tres parcelas de 0,2 hectáreas cada una, donde se midieron: número de vástagos por cepa, DAP de los vástagos por cepa y área basal a nivel de cepa. De las tres parcelas, una corresponde a una parcela control y las dos parcelas restantes fueron cosechadas parcialmente. Se seleccionaron 12 cepas control y 12 cepas intervenidas. Las variables hídricas medidas fueron: potencial hídrico de la hoja (a pre-alba (ΨA) y al mediodía (ΨMD)) y contenido hídrico relativo de la hoja (a pre-alba (CHRA) y al mediodía (CHRMD). Para la caracterización del crecimiento de rebrotes se midieron el DAC y altura, y para la evaluación del crecimiento de los vástagos remanentes se midió el DAP de todos los vástagos por cepa. Para estimar la biomasa de rebrotes, se construyeron modelos de regresión utilizando el peso seco de 20 rebrotes y las variables predictoras DAC y altura. Para estimar la biomasa de los vástagos remanentes, se emplearon funciones de biomasa determinadas por Durán (2005). Por último, se analizó la acumulación de biomasa aérea total de boldo en cepas control y cepas intervenidas para un período de evaluación de un año. Los resultados muestran que el bosque con presencia de boldo presentó una densidad promedio de 207 cepas/ha correspondientes a un Gha inicial de 5,06 m2/ha. Las cepas presentaban en promedio nueve vástagos que, en su mayoría eran menores a 5 cm de DAP. Luego de la cosecha, Gha se redujo a 4,45 m2/ha. El potencial hídrico a pre-alba (ΨA), mostró diferencias significativas entre el tratamiento control y el tratamiento intervención (vástagos y rebrotes). A su vez el potencial hídrico a mediodía (ΨMD) siguió la misma tendencia presentada en ΨA. Al comparar el potencial hídrico dentro de los tratamientos, se observaron diferencias significativas en los tres casos estudiados. Con respecto al contenido hídrico relativo (CHR), se observaron diferencias significativas para el tratamiento control y el de intervención de vástagos tanto en pre-alba como en mediodía. Dentro del tratamiento sólo se observaron diferencias significativas en el tratamiento de intervención de vástagos, en donde en la medición del mediodía se presenta un CHR menor al observado a pre-alba. En el crecimiento de rebrotes el DAC y la altura presentaron un promedio de 4,8 mm y 34,1 cm respectivamente. El diámetro a la altura del cuello (DAC) tuvo una variación entre 1,1 mm y 15,1 mm, mientras que la altura presente en los rebrotes tomó valores entre los 0,40 cm y los 168 cm. En el crecimiento de vástagos remanentes las cepas control presentaron un incremento en DAP de 0,1 cm mientras que las cepas intervenidas presentaron un incremento de 1,1 cm. Para estimar la biomasa aérea de rebrotes, se estableció el DAC como la mejor variable predictora y se obtuvo una producción de biomasa aérea total de rebrotes de 1,03 kg y por componente (hojas y tallo) de 0,187 kg y 0,523 kg respectivamente a nivel de individuo. Para la biomasa aérea de vástagos remanentes, el componente más representativo fue el fuste, seguido por la biomasa foliar. El crecimiento inicial de boldo mostró una baja recuperación de la biomasa total en cepas con cosecha parcial al final del primer año de crecimiento, por lo que la sostenibilidad de la producción de hoja de boldo no se encontraría asegurada. / Peumus boldus Mol. (Boldo), is an endemic species characteristic of the sclerophyllous forest. Its economic potential is related to the commercialization of its leaves. However, the problem associated with this market has to do with the sustainability of the resource over time. Considering its economic potential, the morpho-physiological responses in new shoots and remaining stems were evaluated, according to the intensity of cutting, in the Olmué Commune, Valparaíso Region. Three plots of 0,2 hectares each were established, where they were measured: number of stems per strain, DBH of stems per strain and basal area at strain level. Of the three plots, one corresponds to a control plot and the remaining two plots were partially harvested. Were selected 12 strains control and 12 partial harvest. The water variables measured were: leaf water potential (pre-dawn (ΨA) and noon (ΨMD)) and relative leaf relative water content (pre-dawn (RWCA) and noon (RWCMD). For the characterization of the growth of sprouts, the DRC and height were measured, and for the evaluation of the growth of the remaining shoots the DBH of all the shoots per strain was measured. To estimate the biomass of sprouts, regression models were constructed using the dry weight of 20 sprouts and the predictor variables DRC and height. To estimate the biomass of the remaining shoots, the biomass functions determined by Durán (2005) were used. Once the total aerial and component biomass was determined, the accumulation of total aerial biomass of boldo in control strains and strains intervened for an evaluation period of one year. The results showed that the forest with presence of boldo had an average density of 207 strains/ha corresponding to an initial basal area per hectare of 5,06 m2/ha. The strains showed on average nine stems, which were mostly smaller than 5 cm of DBH. After harvest, basal area per hectare was reduced to 4,45 m2/ha. The pre-dawn water potential (ΨA) showed significant differences between the control treatment and the intervention treatment (stems and sprouts). In turn the water potential at noon (ΨMD) followed the same trend presented in ΨA. When comparing the water potential within the treatments, significant differences were observed in the three cases studied. Regarding the relative water content (RWC), significant differences were observed for the control treatment and for the intervention of stems in both pre-dawn and noon. Within the treatment only significant differences were observed in the intervention treatment of stems, where in the noon measurement a lower RWC is present compared to pre-dawn. In the growth of sprouts the DRC and height presented an average of 4,8 mm and 34,1 cm respectively. The diameter at root collar height (DRC) had a variation between 1,1 mm and 15,1 mm, while the height present in the sprouts took values between 0,40 cm and 168 cm. In the growth of remnant stems the control strains had an increase in DBH of 0,1 cm while the intervened strains showed an increase of 1,1 cm. To estimate the aerial biomass of sprouts, DRC was established as the best predictor variable and a total aerial biomass production of 1,03 kg and per component (leaf and stem) of 0,187 kg and 0,523 kg respectively at the individual level. For the aerial biomass of remnant stems, the most representative component was the stem, followed by the leaf biomass. The initial growth of boldo showed a low recovery of the total biomass in strains with partial harvest at the end of the first year of growth, reason why the sustainability of the production of boldo leaf would not be assured.

The phenomenon called soil aggregate coalescence occurs at contact-points between aggregates and causes soil strength to increase to values that can inhibit plant root exploration and thus potential yield. During natural wetting and drying, soil aggregates appear to ‘weld’ together with little or no increase in dry bulk density. The precise reasons for this phenomenon are not understood, but it has been found to occur even in soils comprised entirely of water stable aggregates. Soil aggregate coalescence has not been widely observed and reported in soil science and yet may pose a significant risk for crops preventing them from achieving their genetic and environmental yield potentials. This project used soil penetrometer resistance and an indirect tensile-strength test to measure the early stages of aggregate coalescence and to evaluate their effects on the early growth of tomato plants. The early stages of aggregate coalescence were thought to be affected by a number of factors including: the matric suction of water during application and subsequent drainage, the overburden pressure on moist soil in the root zone, the initial size of soil aggregates prior to wetting, and the degree of sodicity of the soil aggregates. Seven mainexperiments were conducted to evaluate these factors. The matric suction during wetting of a seedbed affects the degree of aggregate slaking that occurs, and the strength of the wetted aggregates. The matric suction during draining affects the magnitude of ‘effective stresses’ that operate to retain soil structural integrity as the soil drains and dries out. An experiment was conducted to evaluate the influence of matric suction (within a range of suctions experienced in the field) on aggregate coalescence using soils of two different textures. Sieved aggregates (0.5 to 2 mm diameter) from a coarse-textured and two fine-textured (swelling) soils were packed into cylindrical rings (4.77 cm i.d., 5 cm high) and subjected to different suctions on wetting (near-saturation, and 1 kPa), and on draining (10 kPa on sintered-glass funnels, and 100 kPa on ceramic pressure plates). After one-week of drainage, penetrometer resistance was measured as a function of depth to approximately 45 mm (penetrometer had a recessedshaft, cone diameter = 2 mm, advanced at a rate of 0.3 mm/min). Tensile strength of other core-samples was measured after air-drying using an indirect “Brazilian” crushing test. For the coarse-textured soil, penetrometer resistance was significantly greater for samples wet to near-saturation, despite there being no significant increase in dry bulk density; this was not the case for the finer-textured soils, and it was difficult to distinguish the effects of variable bulk density upon drying from those of the imposed wetting treatments. In both coarse- and fine-textured soils, the tensile strength was significantly greater for samples wet to near-saturation. Thus wetting- and draining-suctions were both found to influence the degree of soil aggregate coalescence as measured by penetrometer resistance and tensile strength. Aggregate coalescence in irrigated crops is known to develop as the growing season progresses. It was therefore thought to be linked to the repeated occurrence of matric suctions that enhance the phenomenon during cycles of wetting and draining. An experiment was conducted to determine the extent of aggregate coalescence in a coarsetextured and two fine-textured (swelling clay) soils during 8 successive cycles of wetting and draining. Sieved aggregates (0.5 to 2 mm diameter) from each soil were packed into cylindrical rings (4.77 cm i.d., 5 cm high) and wetted to near saturation for 24 h. They were then drained on ceramic pressure plates to a suction of 100 kPa for one week, after which penetrometer resistance and tensile strength were measured as described above. The degree of expression of aggregate coalescence depended on soil type. For the coarse-textured soil, repeated wetting and draining significantly increased bulk density, penetrometer resistance and tensile strength. For the fine-textured soil, penetrometer resistance and bulk density did not vary significantly with repeated wetting and draining; on the contrary, there was evidence in these swelling clay soils to suggest bulk density and penetrometer resistance decreased. However, there was a progressive increase in tensile strength as cycles of wetting and draining progressed. The expansive nature of the fine-textured soil appears to have masked the development of aggregate coalescence as measured by penetrometer resistance, but its expression was very clear in measurements of tensile strength despite the reduction in bulk density with successive wetting and draining. Field observations have indicated that aggregate coalescence is first expressed at the bottom of the seedbed and that it develops progressively upward to the soil surface during the growing season. This suggests that overburden pressures may enhance the onset of the phenomenon by increasing the degree of inter-aggregate contact. Soils containing large quantities of particulate organic matter were known to resist the onset of aggregate coalescence to some extent. An experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of soil organic matter and overburden pressures, by placing brass cylinders of various weights (equivalent to static load pressures of 0, 0.49, 1.47 and 2.47 kPa) on the top of dry soil aggregates (0.5 – 2 mm diameter) having widely different soil organic carbon contents placed in steel rings 5 cm high and 5 cm i.d. With the weights in place, the aggregates were wetted to near-saturation for 24 h and then drained on ceramic pressure plates to a suction of 100 kPa for one week. Bulk density, penetrometer resistance and tensile strength were measured when the samples were removed from the pressure plates and they all increased significantly with increasing overburden pressure in the soil with low organic matter content, but not in the soil with high organic matter content. The amount of tillage used to prepare seedbeds influences the size distribution of soil aggregates produced – that is, more tillage produces finer seedbeds. The size distribution of soil aggregates affects the number of inter-aggregate contact points and this was thought to influence the degree of aggregate coalescence that develops in a seedbed. Previous work has shown that soil organic matter reduces aggregate coalescence and so an experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of aggregate size and organic matter on the phenomenon. For soils with high and low organic matter contents, aggregate size fractions of < 0.5, 0.5 – 2, 2 – 4, and < 4 mm were packed into soil cores (as above) and wetted to near-saturation then drained to 100 kPa suction as described above. Penetrometer resistance and tensile strength were measured and found to increase directly with the amount of fine material present in the soil cores – being greater in the < 0.5 mm and < 4 mm fractions, and being less in the 0.5 – 2 mm and 2 – 4 mm fractions. In all cases, penetrometer resistance and tensile strength were lower in the samples containing more organic matter. The rate at which soil aggregates are wetted in a seedbed affects the degree of slaking and densification that occurs, and the extent to which aggregates are wetted influences the overall strength of a seedbed. Both wetting rate and the extent of wetting were believed to influence the onset of aggregate coalescence and were thought to be affected by soil organic matter and irrigation technique. An experiment was therefore designed to separate these effects so that improvements to management could be evaluated for their greatest efficacy – that is, to determine whether management should focus on improving irrigation technique or increasing soil organic matter content, or both. The rate of wetting was controlled by spraying (or not spraying) soil aggregates (0.5 – 2 mm diameter) with polyvinyl alcohol (PVA). Samples of coarse- and fine-textured soils were packed into steel rings (as above) and subjected to different application rates of water (1, 10 and 100 mm/h) using a dripper system controlled by a peristaltic pump. Samples were brought to either a near-saturated state or to a suction of 10 kPa for 24 h, and then drained on a pressure plate at a suction of 100 kPa for one week. Measurements of penetrometer resistance and tensile strength were then made as described above. As expected, penetrometer resistance was lower in samples treated with PVA before wetting (slower wetting rates) and in samples held at a greater suction (10 kPa) after initial wetting (greater inter-aggregate strength). The effects were more pronounced in the coarse-textured soil. In both coarse- and fine-textured soils, tensile strengths increased with increasing wetting rate (greatest for 100 mm/h) and extent of wetting (greater when held at near-saturated conditions). The rate of wetting was found to be somewhat more important for promoting aggregate coalescence than the extent of wetting. Because aggregate coalescence often occurs with little or no increase in bulk density, an explanation for the increase in penetrometer resistance and tensile strength is unlikely to be explained by a large increase in the number of inter-aggregate contacts. An increase in the strength of existing points of inter-aggregate contact was therefore considered in this work. For inter-aggregate bond strengths to increase, it was hypothesized that small increases in the amount of mechanically (or spontaneously) dispersed clay particles, and subsequent deposition at inter-aggregate contact points could increase aggregate coalescence as measured by penetrometer resistance and tensile strength. An experiment was devised to manipulate the amount of spontaneously dispersed clay in coarse- and fine-textured soils of high and low organic matter content. The degree of sodicity of each soil was manipulated by varying the exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) of soil aggregates (0.5 – 2mm) above and below a nominal threshold value of 6. Dry aggregates were then packed into steel rings (as above) and subjected to wetting near saturation, then draining to a suction of 100 kPa for one week as described above. Measurements were then taken of penetrometer resistance and tensile strength, both of which were affected by ESP in different ways. In the coarse-textured soil, sodicity enhanced aggregate slaking and dispersion, which increased bulk density. While penetrometer resistance also increased, its effect on aggregate coalescence could not be separated from a simple effect of increased bulk density. Similarly, the effect of sodicity on aggregate coalescence in the fine-textured soil was confounded by the higher water contents produced by greater swelling, which produced lower-than-expected penetrometer resistance. Measurements of tensile strength were conducted on air-dry samples, and so the confounding effects of bulk density and water content were eliminated and it was found that tensile strength increased with sodicity in both coarse- and fine-textured soils. The presence of dispersed clay was therefore implicated in the development of aggregate coalescence in this work. Finally, a preliminary evaluation of how the early stages of aggregate coalescence might affect plant growth was attempted using tomatoes (Gross lisse) as a test plant. Seeds were planted in aggregates (0.5 – 4 mm) of a coarse- or fine-textured soil packed in steel rings. These were wetted at a rate of 1 mm/h to either near-saturation (for maximum coalescence) or to a suction of 10 kPa (for minimum coalescence) and held under these conditions for 24 h. All samples were then transferred to a ceramic pressure plate for drainage to 100 kPa suction for one week. Samples were then placed in a growth-cabinet held at 20C with controlled exposure to 14 h light/day. Germination of the seeds, plant height, and number and length of roots were observed. Germination of the seeds held at near-saturation in both coarse- and fine-textured soils was delayed by 24 h compared with seeds held at 10 kPa suction. Neither the number nor the length of tomato roots differed significantly between the different treatments and soils. In the coarse-textured soil, however, the total root length over a period of 14 days was somewhat greater in the uncoalesced samples than in the coalesced samples, but this difference was not statistically significant. These results suggest that aside from delaying germination, aggregate coalescence may not have a large effect on early growth of tomato plants. However, this is not to say that detrimental effects may not be manifest at later stages of plant growth, and this certainly needs to be evaluated, particularly because aggregate coalescence increase with repeated cycles of wetting and draining. In conclusion, the primary findings of the work undertaken in this thesis were: • Rapid wetting of soil aggregates to near-saturation enhanced the onset of soil aggregate coalescence as measured by (in some cases) penetrometer resistance at a soil water suction of 100 kPa, and (in most cases) tensile strength of soil cores in the air-dry state. The rate of wetting appeared to be more important in bringing on aggregate coalescence than how wet the soil eventually became during wetting. This means reducing the rate at which irrigation water is applied to soils may reduce the onset of aggregate coalescence more effectively than controlling the total amount of water applied – though both are important. The literature reports that aggregate coalescence occurs in the field over periods of up to several months, involving multiple wetting and draining cycles, but the work here demonstrated that this can occur over much shorter time periods depending on conditions imposed. • Aggregate coalescence occurred in coarse-textured soils regardless of whether the bulk density increased during wetting and draining. In finer-textured soils, the response to wetting conditions varied and was complicated by changes in bulk density and water content due to swelling. • Small overburden pressures enhanced the onset of aggregate coalescence, but these effects were diminished in the presence of high soil organic matter contents. • Finer aggregate size distributions (which are often produced in the field by excessive tillage during seedbed preparation) invariably led to greater aggregate coalescence than coarser aggregate size distributions. The effects of aggregate size were mitigated to some extent by higher contents of soil organic matter. • Sodicity enhanced aggregate coalescence as measured by tensile strength, but when penetrometer resistance was measured in the moist state, the effects were masked to some extent by higher water contents generated by swelling and dispersion. This work suggests that tensile strength (in the air dry state) may be a more effective measure of aggregate coalescence than penetrometer resistance. • Early plant response to aggregate coalescence was not large, but the response may become magnified during later stages of growth. / http://proxy.library.adelaide.edu.au/login?url= http://library.adelaide.edu.au/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=1297583 / Thesis (Ph.D.) -- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, 2007

The knowledge of the dynamics of soil water is essential in agricultural, hydrological and environmental engineering as it controls plant growth, key hydrological processes, and the contamination of surface and subsurface water. Nearby remote sensing can be used for characterizing non-destructively the hydrogeophysical properties of the subsurface. In that respect, ground penetrating radar (GPR) constitutes a promising high resolution characterization tool. However, notwithstanding considerable research has been devoted to GPR, its use for assessing quantitatively the subsurface properties is constrained by the lack of appropriate GPR systems and signal analysis methods. In this study, a new integrated approach is developed to identify from GPR measurements the soil water content and hydraulic properties governing water transfer in the subsurface. It is based on hydrodynamic and electromagnetic inverse modeling. Research on GPR has focused on GPR design, forward modeling of GPR signal, and electromagnetic inversion to estimate simultaneously the depth dependent dielectric constant and electric conductivity of the shallow subsurface, which are correlated to water content and water quality. The method relies on an ultrawide band stepped frequency continuous wave radar combined with an off-ground monostatic TEM horn antenna. This radar configuration offers possibilities for real time mapping and allows for a more realistic forward modeling of the radar-antenna-subsurface system. Forward modeling is based on the exact solution of Maxwell's equations for a stratified medium. The forward model consists in elementary linear components which are linked in series and parallel. The GPR approach is validated for simple laboratory and outdoor conditions. GPR signal inversion enables the monitoring of the soil water dynamics, which can be subsequently inverted for estimating the soil hydraulic properties. A specifically designed hydrodynamic inverse modeling procedure which requires only water content data as input is further developed and validated to obtain the soil hydraulic properties under laboratory conditions.