Processes regulating the growth and successional pattern of phytoplankton and the production of odour compounds in lakes of coastal and interior British Columbia were examined. An emphasis was placed on the role of nutrients, the role of size in determining nutrient deficiency, and the importance of winter for understanding the functioning of coastal lakes. Although the study lakes were all phosphorus limited (TN:TP molar ratio >22), plankton, especially the greater than 3 pm size fraction, were often nitrogen deficient. This demonstrates the importance of nitrogen as a growth regulating nutrient for larger plankton in these lakes. Seasonal patterns of productivity varied among lakes, and Maxwell Lake was found to reach maximal photosynthetic rates in February. Lakes without a dominant seasonal physical influence (e.g. ice-cover) and those subject to short-scale stochastic events that play dominant roles may not have their "successional clock" set. This can lead to an apparent chaotic seasonal pattern of species distribution. In coastal lakes the lack of strong seasonal patterns is more likely to occur in lakes with lower nutrients (e.g. <10 pg TP-L-') than in lakes with relatively high nutrients (>I5 pg TP.L-') because of the seasonal cycling of nutrients within eutrophic lakes. The origin of odours in drinking water was examined from nineteen lakes and reservoirs to determine links between limnological variables and classification and intensity of odour. Total phosphorus (TP) was the best single predictor of odour intensity. Vegetation and grassy odours were more prevalent in lakes with TP less than 13 pgL-', while earthy odours were common at higher TP. Drinking water quality issues were reviewed and the relationship between policy, management and science was examined. This work stresses the importance of sound science to ensure the legality, legitimacy, efficiency and effectiveness of implementing water quality policies and for establishing best management practices.

The quality of surface runoff in an urbanized watershed was studied in order to determine the effects of land use and hydrologic conditions. Sampling sites were established so as to be representative of varying land uses and were monitored over a six month period so as to reflect changing flow conditions . Twelve sites, sampled weekly, were established in the Brunette River Basin, an urban watershed located in the Lower Mainland of British Columbia. Water samples, taken at each site, were analyzed for nineteen water quality parameters. Information relating to the hydrology and land uses of the basin was taken from established sources. Multiple regression and analysis of variance techniques were used to relate the land use and hydrology of the basin to the water quality. Total phosphorus, suspended solids and turbity concentrations were directly related to the percentage open space. Specific conductance and the nitrogen compounds were directly related to the percentage residential land. Eight parameters, but particularly turbidity and suspended solids, were dependent on stream discharge. The sensitivity of the data varied from site to site depending on the characteristics of the contributing areas. Discussion was directed toward the spatial and temporal nature of the data, the variance in the data, and the associated problems of scale. / Arts, Faculty of / Geography, Department of / Graduate

The purpose of this study was to quantify the effects of land use on water quality in Ladner Slough, and in the major drainages feeding Ladner Slough. Water samples were collected monthly during the winter of 1976 up until the month of April, 1977. Samples were also collected in August 1976 and August 1977. Soil and sediment samples were collected twice throughout the sampling period in order to aid in determining the net effect of various land uses on water quality. Sampling sites were located on Ladner Slough, Cohilukthan Slough, Crescent Slough, and Deas Slough. In that context, they were located within various different land use areas, and within transition zones between land use areas. Concentrations of metals, nutrients, and major cations in water samples were determined. Analogous determinations were made on the soil and sediment samples taken. The results of numerous statistical analyses suggested that iron and total nitrogen were the water quality parameters that are most sensitive to land use in the Ladner area. Some water quality parameter magnitudes in every slough were found to exceed guideline objectives for domestic use in one or more months throughout the study period. Sloughs draining or adjoining urban zones were observed to exhibit generally the highest concentrations of metals. A site near the sanitary landfill area, on the periphery of Burns Bog, also exhibited consistently high metal concentrations. High nutrient concentrations were most often found in conjunction with agricultural land, and probably resulted from point sources. The highest concentrations of major cations were found in the slough which was closest to the Strait of Georgia. Soil and sediment data did not correlate closely with water quality data. Relatively high concentrations of lead were found in the sediment from Ladner Slough. This was thought to result from the heavy marine traffic on that slough, and could represent a potential sink for that metal. The water quality in Ladner Slough did not differ significantly from the water quality of Deas Slough. This implies that the Fraser River may flush both of the above sloughs periodically. The effects of land use on water quality in the Ladner area are discernable, and often pronounced. Moreover, some water quality problems were found to exist. This report recommends that a surface water and groundwater monitoring network be established in the area in order to provide a greater data base, and to better define specific deleterious activities. Emphasis should be placed on nutrients draining from agricultural land, and metals draining from both urban land, and the sanitary landfill area on the periphery of Burns Bog. / Land and Food Systems, Faculty of / Graduate

This thesis concerns groundwater quality with a detailed study of the Abbotsford-Sumas Aquifer and the high nitrate-nitrogen values that have been occurring for the past 20 or so years. Groundwater is becoming an increasingly scarce resource, both in terms of quantity and quality, worldwide. Aquifers are generally poorly understood, dynamic and are an integral part of the hydrological cycle. Aquifer contamination by land use activities threatens their utility as potable sources of water. The literature suggests that one useful measure of the effects of land use on water contamination is nitrate-nitrogen. This substance may be traced to such activities as agricultural practices and septic systems, two major concerns in the area above the Abbotsford-Sumas Aquifer in southwestern British Columbia. The Abbotsford-Sumas Aquifer was examined in detail with a review of the history, geology, hydrogeology, stakeholders, groundwater use and the current identified contamination. Based on the hydrogeology and land use of the aquifer, a representative study area was selected as a case study. With a focus on nitrate-nitrogen the principle objectives were: to determine land use effects on groundwater contamination, assess the contributions of various nitrogen sources and assess the overall impact of intensive land use on the groundwater contamination. This was investigated by a temporal land use evaluation, a nitrogen / nitrate balance and a review of water quality changes. The major land use change in the study area over the period 1969 to 1992 has been the increase in land used for raspberry production which now accounts for over half of the study area. The nitrogen balance revealed a large quantity of nitrogen unaccounted for which is potentially available for leaching. The predominate source of this excess nitrogen is attributed to the high levels of poultry manure fertilizer applied to the soils supporting raspberry crops. Calculations of the nitrogen sources suggest over 90 percent of the excess nitrogen comes from this source. This was well above the other nitrogen sources such as mineralisation, aerial deposition, septic systems, corn crops and pasture land. Although a minor overall nitrogen source, septic tanks appeared to have the potential for high local loadings of nitrate-nitrogen. The water quality data showed increases in nitrate-nitrogen concentrations in the groundwater over the last 40 years. Seventy percent of the water samples showed nitrate-nitrogen values above the Canadian Drinking Water Guideline maximum value allowed in drinking water. The data however displayed significant variability.

This thesis concerns groundwater quality with a detailed study of the Abbotsford-Sumas Aquifer and the high nitrate-nitrogen values that have been occurring for the past 20 or so years. Groundwater is becoming an increasingly scarce resource, both in terms of quantity and quality, worldwide. Aquifers are generally poorly understood, dynamic and are an integral part of the hydrological cycle. Aquifer contamination by land use activities threatens their utility as potable sources of water. The literature suggests that one useful measure of the effects of land use on water contamination is nitrate-nitrogen. This substance may be traced to such activities as agricultural practices and septic systems, two major concerns in the area above the Abbotsford-Sumas Aquifer in southwestern British Columbia. The Abbotsford-Sumas Aquifer was examined in detail with a review of the history, geology, hydrogeology, stakeholders, groundwater use and the current identified contamination. Based on the hydrogeology and land use of the aquifer, a representative study area was selected as a case study. With a focus on nitrate-nitrogen the principle objectives were: to determine land use effects on groundwater contamination, assess the contributions of various nitrogen sources and assess the overall impact of intensive land use on the groundwater contamination. This was investigated by a temporal land use evaluation, a nitrogen / nitrate balance and a review of water quality changes. The major land use change in the study area over the period 1969 to 1992 has been the increase in land used for raspberry production which now accounts for over half of the study area. The nitrogen balance revealed a large quantity of nitrogen unaccounted for which is potentially available for leaching. The predominate source of this excess nitrogen is attributed to the high levels of poultry manure fertilizer applied to the soils supporting raspberry crops. Calculations of the nitrogen sources suggest over 90 percent of the excess nitrogen comes from this source. This was well above the other nitrogen sources such as mineralisation, aerial deposition, septic systems, corn crops and pasture land. Although a minor overall nitrogen source, septic tanks appeared to have the potential for high local loadings of nitrate-nitrogen. The water quality data showed increases in nitrate-nitrogen concentrations in the groundwater over the last 40 years. Seventy percent of the water samples showed nitrate-nitrogen values above the Canadian Drinking Water Guideline maximum value allowed in drinking water. The data however displayed significant variability. / Science, Faculty of / Resources, Environment and Sustainability (IRES), Institute for / Graduate

The Salmon River Watershed, Langley, B.C., is on the urban-rural fringe of the Greater Vancouver Regional District. A major aquifer within the Salmon River Watershed provides rural residents with drinking water and maintains stream flow during the summer. The highly mixed land use activities in the watershed, consisting of residential development, commercial agriculture and hobby farming, are resulting in non-point source nitrogen pollution of stream and groundwater. The purpose of this study was to determine how the type, intensity and changes in land use activities have affected water quality. Indicators such as nitrate-N, ammonia-N, orthophosphate, and faecal coliforms and streptococci were used to characterize water quality. Animal unit and septic system densities and nitrogen loading were used as land use indicators. Land use/water quality relationships were analyzed with a Geographic Information System (GIS). The Salmon River and its tributaries are relatively healthy. Most of the water quality indicators met the appropriate criteria for drinking water and aquatic life. Nitrate-N concentrations and microbial counts, however, have been and continue to be a concern. While nitrate-N was below the maximum drinking water quality criterion of 10 mg-N L'1 at all stations there are localized areas where nitrate-N concentrations are above background and reaching levels of concern (5 mg-N L"1). The highest nitrate-N concentrations were measured during low-flow conditions. This suggests that the nitrogen-polluted groundwater is affecting the stream during the summer. In contrast, faecal coliforms and streptocci counts were higher during high-flow conditions suggesting runoff from agricultural fields on which manure is spread in the late fall. More than 3,200 septic systems have been installed in the Salmon River Watershed between 1930 and 1994, a large number of which are located on the Hopington Aquifer. The pattern of increasing septic system densities closely matched the increase in streamwater nitrate-N from up to downstream in both the Salmon River mainstem and Coghlan Creek upstream of their confluence. Agricultural activities are concentrated on large commercial operations. However, hobby farms are becoming a more important component of the agricultural sector in the urban-rural fringe environment. There has been an overall decrease in animal numbers, mostly due to fewer cattle, poultry and pigs between 1986 and 1991. In contrast, horses and sheep, often associated with small farms, increased in number over the same time period. Animal unit densities increased from up to downstream in the Salmon River mainstem to its confluence with Coghlan Creek as does the streamwater nitrate-N concentration. In the Coghlan, however, animal unit densities did not vary, yet the nitrate-N values in this section of the stream increased the most. These results suggest that residential and agricultural uses are both sources of nitrogen in the Salmon mainstem, while septic systems are the primary source in Coghlan Creek. A nitrogen mass balance was used to quantify the sources (manure, fertilizers, the atmosphere and septic systems) and sinks (crop uptake, management losses, dentrification) of nitrogen in the watershed in order to determine the amount of surplus nitrogen being applied. The contribution of septic systems accounted for about 20 % of the surplus loading in the watershed, while large farms contributed about 68 % and small farms 12 % of the surplus loading. There is a poor linear relationship between high nitrate-N values in the stream and corresponding spatial inputs of nitrogen from manure, fertilizers and septic systems. This is due to the highly variable surficial geology, the complexity of groundwater hydrology and the spatial lag between areas of high nitrogen surplus applications and water quality sampling stations. The area near the Salmon River-Coghlan Creek confluence is the most affected section of streams in the watershed and should be used as the key site to monitor environmental quality in the watershed.

The Salmon River Watershed, Langley, B.C., is on the urban-rural fringe of the Greater Vancouver Regional District. A major aquifer within the Salmon River Watershed provides rural residents with drinking water and maintains stream flow during the summer. The highly mixed land use activities in the watershed, consisting of residential development, commercial agriculture and hobby farming, are resulting in non-point source nitrogen pollution of stream and groundwater. The purpose of this study was to determine how the type, intensity and changes in land use activities have affected water quality. Indicators such as nitrate-N, ammonia-N, orthophosphate, and faecal coliforms and streptococci were used to characterize water quality. Animal unit and septic system densities and nitrogen loading were used as land use indicators. Land use/water quality relationships were analyzed with a Geographic Information System (GIS). The Salmon River and its tributaries are relatively healthy. Most of the water quality indicators met the appropriate criteria for drinking water and aquatic life. Nitrate-N concentrations and microbial counts, however, have been and continue to be a concern. While nitrate-N was below the maximum drinking water quality criterion of 10 mg-N L'1 at all stations there are localized areas where nitrate-N concentrations are above background and reaching levels of concern (5 mg-N L"1). The highest nitrate-N concentrations were measured during low-flow conditions. This suggests that the nitrogen-polluted groundwater is affecting the stream during the summer. In contrast, faecal coliforms and streptocci counts were higher during high-flow conditions suggesting runoff from agricultural fields on which manure is spread in the late fall. More than 3,200 septic systems have been installed in the Salmon River Watershed between 1930 and 1994, a large number of which are located on the Hopington Aquifer. The pattern of increasing septic system densities closely matched the increase in streamwater nitrate-N from up to downstream in both the Salmon River mainstem and Coghlan Creek upstream of their confluence. Agricultural activities are concentrated on large commercial operations. However, hobby farms are becoming a more important component of the agricultural sector in the urban-rural fringe environment. There has been an overall decrease in animal numbers, mostly due to fewer cattle, poultry and pigs between 1986 and 1991. In contrast, horses and sheep, often associated with small farms, increased in number over the same time period. Animal unit densities increased from up to downstream in the Salmon River mainstem to its confluence with Coghlan Creek as does the streamwater nitrate-N concentration. In the Coghlan, however, animal unit densities did not vary, yet the nitrate-N values in this section of the stream increased the most. These results suggest that residential and agricultural uses are both sources of nitrogen in the Salmon mainstem, while septic systems are the primary source in Coghlan Creek. A nitrogen mass balance was used to quantify the sources (manure, fertilizers, the atmosphere and septic systems) and sinks (crop uptake, management losses, dentrification) of nitrogen in the watershed in order to determine the amount of surplus nitrogen being applied. The contribution of septic systems accounted for about 20 % of the surplus loading in the watershed, while large farms contributed about 68 % and small farms 12 % of the surplus loading. There is a poor linear relationship between high nitrate-N values in the stream and corresponding spatial inputs of nitrogen from manure, fertilizers and septic systems. This is due to the highly variable surficial geology, the complexity of groundwater hydrology and the spatial lag between areas of high nitrogen surplus applications and water quality sampling stations. The area near the Salmon River-Coghlan Creek confluence is the most affected section of streams in the watershed and should be used as the key site to monitor environmental quality in the watershed. / Science, Faculty of / Resources, Environment and Sustainability (IRES), Institute for / Graduate

The environmental impacts of log storage on water quality and microbiology in Babine Lake, B.C. were studied in experimental enclosures. The enclosure work was a two phase study, with data collected during the summers of 1984 and 1985. The experiments performed in the field season of 1984 involved the addition of mixed lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) and white spruce (Picea glauca) bark debris, in different amounts, to the enclosures to examine effects on water quality (dissolved oxygen, lignins-tannins, total organic carbon, total inorganic carbon, pH, and alkalinity), bacterial activity (heterotrophy), and phytoplanktonic primary production. The 1985 study attempted to simulate a shallow water log storage facility by adding logs to the enclosures. A comparison was made of differences in water quality (including the above measurements plus chemical oxygen demand, nutrients, volatile fatty acids, and carbohydrates), and sestonic bacterial and phytoplanktonic algal populations (enumeration and biomass calculations) between (i) lodgepole pine and white spruce, and (ii) the number of logs per enclosure. The bark enclosure study resulted in organic enrichment of the enclosure ecosystem. More than 50% of the total organic carbon (TOC) was attributed to leached lignins and tannins. The leachate was capable of modifying microorganism production. Phytoplanktonic algal biomass, measured by chlorophyll ɑ, was completely eliminated at high concentrations of bark. Short term laboratory studies with bark leachate inhibited microbial activity of natural aquatic bacteria, however, from the enclosure experiments, it was apparent that with time a population of microbes would develop to utilize the chemically complex leachate. The presence of utilizable organic material (i.e. wood sugars) and an active microbial community resulted in a significant decrease in the dissolved oxygen levels. The results of the log study found significant decreases in the amount of organic extractives leached from logs compared to the TOC concentration in the bark experiment. For example, the TOC concentrations in the 5 log enclosures were approximately 20 mg/l by the end of the 25 day test period (≤ 10% was lignin and tannin carbon) ; this value was significantly smaller compared to the bark experiments, where the TOC levels in the heavy bark treatment (20 kg) reached ≃ 400 mg/l after 25 days. A comparison between the bark and log experiments (on an equivalent bark dry weight basis) found water quality degradation by bark leachates more severe than log leachates. The log leachate stimulated bacterial production and did not adversely affect phytoplankton biomass. The increase in bacterial production, a direct result of (i) an available carbon source, determined by TOC measurements and the very low concentrations of volatile fatty acids and reduced carbohydrates (rapidly utilized), and (ii) an increase in water temperature caused a decrease in dissolved oxygen levels. The spruce log enclosures for both June and July had higher heterotrophic uptake rates than the pine log enclosures. This indicated a difference in the chemical composition of the spruce and pine log leachates. This chemical difference was detected in the TOC and COD measurements and the microbial uptake kinetics experiment. These measurements found that the pine log leachate was more readily degraded (high affinity, Vmax/Kt) by a heterotrophic population than the spruce leachate, and that this difference could account for the higher dissolved oxygen demand of the pine log enclosures compared to the spruce logs. Detailed chemical analyses of the leachates in the presence of microbial inhibitors may help to delineate this discrepancy between the spruce heterotrophic uptake rates and the chemical and bacterial measurements of the pine log leachates. The enclosure studies indicated that log storage in a shallow, poorly flushed, littoral area of a lake would possibly result in an accumulation of organic components leached from the log and bark debris. The organic enrichment of the aquatic ecosystem would contribute to a potential decrease in dissolved oxygen, thus, negatively affecting fish habitat, but could increase microbial production. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Civil Engineering, Department of / Graduate

Water quality studies conducted in the recent past in the Lower Fraser River Basin indicated that locally some high pollution levels exist. With further urbanization and industrialization of the Vancouver region an increase in waste loadings and a degradation of water quality can be expected if no strict pollution control is applied. Of particular concern are biologically undegradable substances such as heavy metals and poly-chlorinated hydrocarbons. They accumulate in the sediments of the river and the estuary and become concentrated in organisms of the food chain. Pollution is a gradually occurring process. Anticipation of potential problems is important for the decision maker responsible for water quality management. The Fraser River supports one of the largest salmon runs of the world and is abundant with other commercially and recreationally valuable fish. Salmon are very sensitive to pollution and could disappear from the Fraser river system as they already have from many other major rivers if pollution levels become too high. The Fraser River estuary has the function of a bottleneck. Adult salmon enter the river to migrate upstream to their spawning grounds, and juvenile salmon stay in the estuary for a while to acclimatize themselves to the saline environment. In this thesis a method is presented to simulate the effects of potential pollution on the size of a salmon stock. A model which uses data from various life stages of a particular sockeye salmon run in the Fraser system is developed. Uncertainties due to environmental fluctuations are accounted for. Using this model the effects of an increase in mortality rate in two stages of the sockeye salmon life cycle on adult return numbers are studied. The analysis showed that at a certain mortality rate chances are that the stock might not be able to recover. In light of a planned salmon enhancement program to increase salmon stocks in various Pacific rivers, the fact that decreasing water quality could counteract all enhancement efforts should be a warning signal to the decision makers. The development of a water quality index to predict future conditions is recommended and a possible procedure to relate water quality parameters to an increase in mortality rate is sketched out. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Civil Engineering, Department of / Graduate

The management of aquatic resources by technological means generates a significant degree of uncertainty regarding a system's performance and its potential impact upon the natural environment. The central concern of this thesis is to illustrate the kinds of analyses that are required in order to identify and reduce the uncertainties associated with the technological control of water quality. Provided as background information is a general review of the seasonal dynamics of lakes, a statement of the concepts of natural and cultural eutrophication, an outline of the socio-economic costs associated with eutrophication, and a description of prominent remedial technologies. The specific situation examined herein is Deer Lake within the Municipality of Burnaby. The natural and cultural environments of Deer Lake are described in addition to the lake's morphology and indigenous biota. Specific water quality problems relevant to the intended cultural use of the lake (outdoor recreation) are, in turn, identified and discussed These include water temperature, dissolved oxygen, turbidity, nutrient concentrations, and lake depth. As part of the analysis, the thesis proceeds to demonstrate the manner in which water quality problems may be conceptualized from the perspective of intended resource use, and how the articulation of these problems in the prescribed form facilitates the initial selection of technologies appropriate to the task. The illustrative analyses of three remedial technological options are then conducted with a view to illustrating how the deficiencies of knowledge and the problems of limited data may, to some extent, be overcome. This research concludes that the analytical procedures employed here serves to introduce a greater degree of objectivity to the process than might otherwise occur. In addition, such a structured approach provides for a more complete analysis of the problem with a greater degree of rigour in the results. Finally, recommendations for further research in this area are made with a view towards expanding the applicability of, and introducing greater rigour in the format employed. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate