Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2002. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: A vast literature on the incompatibility of socio-economic development and environmental conservation (also referred to as sustainable development) has developed over the past few years. This study takes on the form of a critical, problemdriven discussion and evaluation of the applicability and viability of the concept of capacity-sharing to the current South African water management regime. Within the study, the complexities involved in the shift from a supply- to demandoriented management strategy are examined in depth. This transition in strategy proves to be problematic for water policy makers and managers because of past management regimes and structures, measurement related problems, incorrect or insufficient definition of criteria needed for demand-oriented approaches and the emotional complexities regarding water use. Developments in water policy are currently at a point where problems are experienced regarding the practical implementation of proposed water demand-oriented policy. The concept of capacity-sharing is explained and discussed in detail, leading to the identification of the applicability to three of the most important problems (basic contradiction within the 1998 National Water Act, initial allocation for market adoption and equity within the market) faced within the transition towards a demand-oriented approach. This study found that the concept of capacity-sharing does hold applicability in addressing the above-mentioned three problems towards the transition to a demand-side management approach. Capacity-sharing, therefore, should be part of this timely transition and the state should make use of the advantages of this concept. To support this view, seven studies are proposed for further research to address the problems as mentioned in section 5.2 of the thesis. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: 'n Uitgebreide literatuur aangaande die onversoenbaarheid van sosio-ekonomiese ontwikkeling en omgewingsbewaring (ook volhoubare ontwikkeling genoem) het oor die afgelope paar jaar ontwikkel. Hierdie studie neem die vorm van 'n kritiese, probleemgedrewe bespreking ten opsigte van die toepasbaarheid en relevansie van die konsep van kapasiteitsdeling binne die orde van huidige Suid Afrikaanse waterbestuur, aan. Die vele aspekte van die klemverskuiwing van 'n aanbod- na 'n vraag-georiënteerde waterbestuur-strategie, word ook beklemtoon. Hierdie oorgang is problematies vir waterbeleid-formuleerders en bestuurders as gevolg van vorige waterbestuur-ordes en strukture, meetbaarheid georiënteerde probleme, foutiewe of onvoldoende definieering van watergebruik-regte en die emosionele kompleksiteite van water. Tans, word probleme rakende die praktiese implementering van voorgestelde vraag-georienteerde waterbeleid ervaar. Die konsep van kapasiteitsdeling word in detail verduidelik en bespreek waarvandaan die toepasbaarheid op drie van die belangrikste probleme (basiese kontradiksie binne die 1998 Nasionale Waterwet, aanvanklike verdeling van water gebruik regte vir opname binne die mark en die kwessie van regverdigheid binne die mark) vir die oorgang na 'n vraaggeoriënteerde strategie geïdentifiseer word. Die studie het bevind dat die konsep van kapasiteitsdeling wel relevansie ten opsigte van die bogenoemde drie probleme tydens die oorgang na 'n vraag-georiënteerde strategie, inhou. Kapasiteitsdeling behoort dus deel te vorm van die oorgangsfase na 'n vraag-georiënteerde water bestuur strategie en die staat behoort gebruik te maak van die konsep se voordele. Ter ondersteuning hiervan word sewe studies voorgestel vir verdere navorsing ten opsigte van die probleme soos geïdentifiseer in afdeling 5.2 van die tesis.

<p>The water resources management regime has shifted from one focusing almost exclusively on augmenting supply to one where ensuring access, equity and sustainability are an integral part of the process. A growing demand for water and the fact that the amount of fresh water is constant raises the impression of water scarcity will occur. Indications are that the notion of access to water for basic needs as well as access to productive water underpins perceptions of scarcity. This thesis interrogated perceptions of scarcity in a small rural community in order to understand the role water can play in developing sustainable livelihoods.</p>

<p>The water resources management regime has shifted from one focusing almost exclusively on augmenting supply to one where ensuring access, equity and sustainability are an integral part of the process. A growing demand for water and the fact that the amount of fresh water is constant raises the impression of water scarcity will occur. Indications are that the notion of access to water for basic needs as well as access to productive water underpins perceptions of scarcity. This thesis interrogated perceptions of scarcity in a small rural community in order to understand the role water can play in developing sustainable livelihoods.</p>

The rural areas of Amathole district municipality continue to experience difficulty in accessing water services. The people experience problems despite the fact that the Amathole district municipality, since 2003 has been made a water service authority in its municipal area, which consists of eight local municipalities, namely; Mnquma, Mbashe, Nkonkobe, Amahlathi, Great Kei, Ngqushwa, Nxuba, and Buffalo City. With the water service authority powers devolved from national government to the district municipalities the intention was to speed service delivery. This study investigates the causes of the delays in water service delivery experienced in rural areas of this district municipality. The Buffalo City local municipality is excluded in the study because Buffalo City has as well been given the responsibility of being the water service authority in its municipal area. This study used the questionnaires as data collection tool, and it was distributed to these respondents; chief officials, councilors, and citizens. Due to vastness of the target population sampling was used to reduce the bulkiness of the data. The questionnaire content is based on the phases of the systems theory to see if the policy making processes of the Amathole district municipality are carried out in accordance with the systems theory. The study has found that the citizens are not adequately involved in all the policy processes including the policy analysis and evaluation. This has been found to be a contributory factor in the ineffectiveness of the municipality water service delivery.The spheres of government that operate in silos compromised policy analysis and evaluation of the municipality, and disjuncture of the delivery programs of the spheres and state enterprises caused a huge service delivery challenges for this municipality. The study has confirmed that the Amathole district municipality is experiencing problems, delays, and challenges that make it to be ineffective as a water service authority.

PhDRDV / Institute for Rural Development / Approximately, 780 million of people in the world lack access to safe water for domestic use. Out of these, 37 % are found in sub-Saharan Africa. Because of the negative impact of climate variability and change, scarcity of water is likely to continue worsening. Although semi-arid areas experience water shortages, they receive limited amounts of rainfall. Rainwater might help alleviate temporal water shortages. However, rainwater is rarely harvested for use when most needed. The PhD in Rural Development thesis research was carried out in Mabayeni village, which falls under Ward 35 of Collins Chabane Local Municipality in Limpopo Province of South Africa. It was designed to develop a grassroots community-informed prototype for a technology that could be used to harvest rainwater for domestic use. A series of interrelated studies with the following specific objectives underpinned the research: (1) To determine the extent of water scarcity; (2) To identify strategies households used to cope with inadequate availability of water for domestic use; (3) To document the rainwater harvesting techniques rural households used; (4) To compare the features of rainwater harvesting technology that people of different age groups preferred; (5) To develop community-preferred prototypes of rainwater harvesting technology with the best potential to increase access to water for domestic use; and (6) To evaluate the community-preferred prototypes of rainwater harvesting technology. Partly, the study was conducted as a follow-up to a Master’s research study on climate change carried out in 2014 in Mabayeni village. In the 2014 study, it was revealed that water scarcity was a major result of climate change in the area. In addition, Mabayeni was perceived as the driest compared to other villages in the ward. The Cresswell (2013) explanatory sequential mixed method design guided the study. Multi-stage sampling was followed to select respondents. This entailed categorizing respondents first dividing them by age and gender. Respondents were placed in the following clusters: children (boys and girls), youth (male and female), adult (men and women), and the elderly. This was done in order to ensure that there was triangulation of data sources. Various participatory research techniques were used to collect qualitative data for the same reason. For objective 1, data collection techniques such as photo voice, key informant interviews, focus group discussions, participatory mapping, transect walks, storytelling and seasonal diagramming were used. Data were analysed through card sorting, Atlas.ti version 7.5.7-mediated thematic content analysis, map ranking, matrix scoring and conversation analysis. Data collection techniques employed for objective 2 were similar to those used in objective 1 with the exception of participatory mapping. Thematic content analysis in Atlas.ti, map ranking and matrix ranking were used to analyse data for this objective. Only focus group discussions, key informant interviews and transect walks were used to collect data for objective 3. Data analysis techniques used were similar to those used in the previous objective with the exception of map ranking. For objective 4, data were collected through focus group discussions and analysed using matrix ranking and Atlas.ti-aided thematic content analysis. In objective 5, development of artefacts was guided by prototyping and sketch modelling techniques. Techniques such as verbal protocol analysis, mathematical calculations and presentation and analysis were used to analyse data. A questionnaire with open and closed ended questions was also used to collect data for the last objective. Open-ended questions were analysed using thematic content analysis. In addition, the Kruskal Wallis test in SPSS version 25 determined first, the two prototypes (one for zinc and another for thatch roof) that were regarded as the best; and second, if prototype component ratings significantly differed (p <0.05) across prototypes. As a post hoc test, the Dunn’s test in R Statistical Software version 3.3.0 was used for pairwise comparisons. Data saturation determined the sample size. A total of 17 community engagement sessions were held to collect, analyse and validate findings with the grassroots community members in Mabayeni village. Water scarcity in Mabayeni village was reconfirmed to be seasonal. The dry season in each year was five months long. During this time, residents adopted random, risky and unhygienic coping strategies. Although rainwater was collected from rooftops, there was no formal technology used to gather and store large quantities for later use. This was attributed to lack of resources and knowledge on how to develop such technologies. The most commonly preferred features of rainwater harvesting technology across interest groups related to water quality, construction materials and security. All interest groups preferred a technology that harvested clean/potable water. Moreover, the elderly wanted a technology that would help them access the stored water easily. In total, 14 prototypes were developed. When all the interest groups evaluated the prototypes, the ones that boys and men developed were selected as the best for zinc and thatched roofbased technologies, respectively. Selection of a prototype that children produced as the best underlined that children were an important resource that communities should never marginalise. Nor should their ability to contribute useful ideas be underestimated when seeking solutions to local challenges. Active involvement of grassroots community members in the entire design process helped tailor specifications of the technology to user needs, thereby highlighting the importance of inclusive decision making in development practice. This was also important because it created ownership and increased chances of adopting the technology. Lastly, the current study reaffirmed the view that postgraduate degree research can be harnessed to coproduce solutions to community-identified challenges. / NRF

Thesis (MPA.) -- University of Limpopo, 2019 / This study is about an investigation into the provisioning of water and sanitation services in Ga-Kgapane Township in the Limpopo Province. Since the year 2002, the residents of Ga-Kgapane Township live without sufficient water supply services. Residents receive tap water once a week and they depend on supply from water tankers for the rest of the week. This township has a water borne sewage system and most of the households have indoor toilets. The study used a mixed method because it had incorporated both elements of qualitative and quantitative methodologies in its approaches. The research instruments such as semi-structured interviews, questionnaires, documentary data extraction and observations were used to collect information. The study’s sample size comprised of 77 key participants and informants from Mopani District Municipality (Water Services Authority); Lepelle-Northern Water Board (implementing agency and bulk water supplier); Greater Letaba Municipality (Water Service Provider); Ward Councillors and community members (endusers). The research findings revealed that Ga-Kgapane Township’s water and sanitation provision challenges are due to insufficient or lack of water, poor water management and poor governance. It was also discovered that the MDM and GLM have failed to translate the rights to water and sanitation into law, policy, budget and service provision for the Ga-Kgapane Township residents. The insufficient water supply challenge resulted in some community members migrating to other areas where there is better basic service provision. The residents failed to exploit the economic development opportunities which resulted in health risks as they were exposed to danger due to burst sewer pipes which spewed raw sewerage water on the streets. The sewage contaminated the township’s natural streams. This study’s findings could form a basis for future research on the effectiveness of the MDM’s Water Services Provision Agreement which was signed with the district’s local municipalities. The Mopani District Municipality has for many years v received undesired audit opinions ranging from ‘Adverse to Disclaimer’ notices. This affects the local municipalities too as they are all qualified-on water transactions. As part of the recommendations, the study proposed that the Greater Letaba Municipality should utilise the Intergovernmental Relations Forum to address the plight of the provision of water and sanitation services in Ga-Kgapane Township.

Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Engineering, Department of Civil Engineering and Surveying, Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa, 2016. / Water is a critical resource in Southern Africa. The region thus needs to protect both the quality and the quantity of its water resources through robust water conservation and demand management (WC/DM) measures. Water demand management encompasses activities that aim to decrease water demand, improve the efficiency of water use and prevent the deterioration of water resources. Water conservation refers to policies, measures or consumer practices that promote the conservation of water resources. Water resources should be used wisely to secure a water supply that is of good quality and enough for South Africa’s people and its natural environment, which provides the ecosystem that supports all forms of life. When a water utility systems experience water losses, the amount of water available to consumers is reduced, making it difficult to satisfy demand. Water losses also occur as a result of inaccuracies in customer meters, data errors in the billing system and unauthorised consumption. Such losses result in non-revenue water (NRW), which is a serious threat to the water supply sector. NRW refers to the water that is produced and lost without generating revenue for the utility. This research study investigated strategies that could be used to address the challenge of water losses, by developing a more suitable business model that could be incorporated into Ugu District Municipality (DM)’s existing NRW reduction strategies. The study was carried out in Amandawe and Umzinto zones of the District Municipality and it covered the period 01 March 2014 to June 2015. The study objectives were made up of four components. The first was to identify and prioritise the implementation of NRW reduction strategies. This was achieved by identifying the pipes to be closed off, which were supplying a significant number of consumers. For those pipes that were not closed off, flow meters were installed to measure the flow into and out of a zone. The system was then tested for zero pressure by isolating all closed valves to ensure that there were no potential feed-backs into the zone. Pressure gauges were set up on standpipes for routine pressure monitoring. The test was run at night (between 01.00 and 05.00 hours) when the system was under pressure. When the pressure dropped consistently, this meant that there was no feedback into a zone. Leaks were detected by logging the system in order to obtain night flows, which were analysed to determine the system behaviour. The results for Amandawe Zone after implementation of the pressure management programme, indicated that the average zone’s night pressure (AZNP) decreased from 7.38 bars to 5.95 bars. For Umzinto Zone, the AZNP dropped from 5.5 bars to 3.3 bars. The minimum night flows (MNFs) dropped from 34.80 m3/hr to 15.20 m3/hr in Amandawe Zone and from 6.4 m3/hr to 1.70 m3/hr in Umzinto Zone. The daily cost of excess night flow due to bursts was reduced from R2276.17/day to R862.61/day in Amandawe Zone and from R361.24/day to R40.46/day in Umzinto Zone, which provided huge savings. The second objective was to identify the sources and causes of water losses in the study area by conducting field measurements and observations. This was achieved by physically inspecting the infrastructure using visual observation, mechanical listening sticks, correlators, ground microphones and system loggers. The following indicators were used to physically identify underground leaks: unusually wet surfaces in landscaped areas, pools of water on the ground surface, noticeably green, soft and mouldy areas surrounded by drier surfaces, a notable drop in water pressure or flow volume, unexplained sudden increase in water demand or water use at a fairly steady rate for several billing cycles, cracks in paved surfaces, potholes or sink holes and the sudden appearance of dirty water in the main distribution system. For this study, the water losses in the system were found to be as a result of various causes including leaks, aging infrastructure, high pressure in the system, damaged pipes and illegal connections, among others. The third objective was to construct a water balance in order to determine the key performance indicators for the NRW reduction strategies. This was achieved by determining the system input volume (SIV), billed authorized consumption (BAC), unbilled metered consumption (UMC), unbilled unmetered consumption (UUC), real losses (RL), apparent losses (AL) and IWA Key Performance Indicators. Bulk and domestic meter readings were used to calculate the components of the water balance. The results of the water balance indicated that there was a decrease in the SIV from 904 kL/day to 523 kL/day in Amandawe Zone and from 382 kL/day to 221 kL/day in Umzinto Zone. The physical water losses were reduced from 611 kL/day to 377 kL/day in Amandawe Zone and from 93.8 kL/day to 45.8 kL/day in Umzinto Zone. The NRW was reduced from 659 kL/day to 395 kL/day in Amandawe Zone and from 94.2 kL/day to 46.2 kL/day in Umzinto Zone. The fourth objective was to develop the most suitable business model for Ugu DM based on the results arising from the first three objectives. Ugu DM needs to ensure both operational and financial efficiency. Operational efficiency could be achieved by minimising real water losses through reviewing water services standards, developing district metering areas, pressure management, leak detection and repair, reservoir control to stop overflows and pipe replacement programs. Financial efficiency could be achieved by carrying out regular meter testing and calibration, securing database integrity, managing illegal connections, ensuring that all customer connections have meters and ensuring that the tariff structures were cost reflective in order for the municipality to cover costs and generate revenue. Findings of this study could assist other water utilities operating under similar conditions. The implementation of this study’s results could have positive economic, social and environmental effects on Ugu DM. It was concluded that rezoning, pressure management and leak detection were the most critical NRW reduction strategies as they had a positive impact on the system. The main causes of leaks in the system were identified as aging infrastructure, high pressures in the system, and illegal connections. All the critical KPIs of IWA water balance responded positively after the implementation of the strategies by reducing. The operational and financial efficiencies were identified as critical for a WSA to develop a business model that could sustain itself.

MSc Dissertation Submitted to School of Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa 12 August 2016 / Most mineral processing plants have high water requirements for their operational activities. These plants often function in an environment where water is becoming increasingly scarce. An increase in population will result in an increased demand for water, potentially beyond the limits of supply, and hence increased competition for the resource. In South Africa, Gauteng and the North West Province are likely to be first to experience a shortage of potable water. The key to a sustainable future lies in understanding and utilising resources more efficiently. This holds especially for industries who seek to minimise water usage through better management of resources. The two tools used in this study are the Water Accounting Framework (WAF) and Water Footprinting (WF) method. This research assisted a refinery in the North West Province understand its water usage and move towards operating in a more sustainable manner. Site water management was improved and the objective of this research fulfilled by: (i) Surveying the potable water and the storm water systems with a view to assessing the current water accountability and determining methods to improve accountability; (ii) Determining the water balance for the site and presenting it in the form of a water balance sheet; (iii) Reporting water usage in accordance with the Minerals Council of Australia’s “Water Accounting Framework for the Minerals Industry”; (iv) Calculating the water footprints of the refinery; and (v) Evaluating the water usage at the refinery and identifying ways in which water savings could be achieved. It was seen that the biggest consumer of water was the boilers and utilities section and the biggest loss of water was through evaporation. The refinery potable water requirement (2 280 m3/y) amounted to 0.16% of the daily water use for the Bojanala Platinum District. Four reports (outputs) were generated using the WAF. The four reports generated provide a good indication of the movement of water into, out of and during a process. WFs were calculated for the process. The blue WF was calculated to be 832 363 m3 and the green WF was calculated to be 261 970 m3. The product WF was 43.9 m3/t of base metal produced. There was no grey WF as the site does not discharge polluted water. This research provided an opportunity for the refinery to improve water efficiency onsite as well as improve reporting standards. Water usage was reported using global reporting tools to set a benchmark for the base metals industry. / MT2017

A research report submitted to the Faculty of the Built Environment and Engineering, University of the Witwatersrand, in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Science in the field of Development Planning (MSc DP) August 2015 / Since the democratic transition in 1994, the role of local government has changed dramatically. Local governments are now expected to play a far more active role in their constituencies. As such, municipalities are expected to implement broader national policies and legislatures. The literature reviewed as part of the research indicated that most municipalities are faced with inadequate performance skills to manage and sustain their projects. This particular study seeks to understand the institutional and human resources strengths and weaknesses that help or hinder Sedibeng municipality to actively pursue water conservation through implementing Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) principles. In pursuit of this purpose, a qualitative research approach was adopted with interviews conducted with Sedibeng Municipality’s seven senior officials and community members. The main findings of this study revealed that the key technical department of the water sector in Sedibeng has capacity challenges at individual and organizational level. Of special concern is the failure of the municipality to give ongoing training to staff, so as to pass on modern advanced knowledge and new technological innovation skills. This is further compounded by the mismatch between the qualifications and job descriptions of some staff members. The study also finds that public-private partnership between the municipalities and private companies is needed in the water sector to promote water conservation and thus provide a better level of service delivery. The research concludes that institutional capacity is a prerequisite for the implementation of IWRM principles. In regard to this study, it has been established that to some extent Sedibeng District Municipality has the required institutional capacity in terms of organizational arrangement to harness the principles of IWRM. The accomplishment of IWRM depends profoundly on financial and human capacity of each municipality. Therefore, the key recommendation is that the municipalities should employ individuals based on merit and work experience to ensure efficient management of funds and effective execution of water related projects. Key words: Water Conservation, IWRM, Institutional capacity, Sedibeng, Emfuleni

Thesis (MBA.) -- University of Limpopo, 2007 / The residents of Lebowakgomo in Lepelle-Nkumpi Municipality experience numerous inequalities in relation to water services provision. Some of the residents protest towards the inequalities through refusal to pay for the water services. The confrontational non paying residents field questions which the municipality can hardly answer. The problem of refusal to pay is of the magnitude that recently the municipality had to go house-to-house pleading with the inhabitants to pay if the municipality was to continue to provide water services. The specific objectives of this study were three-fold: (1) to determine water service quality using residents’ perceptions on water services in Lebowakgomo, (2) to determine residents’ expectations and perceptions on water services in Lebowakgomo, and (3) to determine the residents’ perceptions on water service quality and customer satisfaction in Lebowakgomo using age, gender, qualification and suburb. A questionnaire comprising five dimensions, namely, tangibles, reliability, assurance, empathy and responsiveness, was compiled to collect data from three suburbs of Lebowakgomo in Lepelle-Nkumpi Municipality. The original sample size was 120, with 9 becoming spoiled due to missing data. The independent variables comprised age, qualification, suburb and gender. Most of the data were analysed for kurtosis and skewness and with the exception of one variable, the rest of the data did not conform to parametric analysis criteria. The major findings of this study indicated overall negative perceptions of residents’ on four dimensions of empathy, reliability, responsiveness and assurance on water service quality which implied that the residents were dissatisfied with the service and called on management to use SERVQUAL as a valid model of assessment to identify areas requiring immediate attention for service improvement. On the other contra positive it was revealed that the municipality was doing well on the tangibles dimension. ix The study recommended use of SERVQUAL in measuring quality of other services within the constitutional competencies of the municipality and further research to investigate age contribution to service quality.