Prosociality describes the tendency to engage in behaviours that aim to enhance or maintain the well-being of others, for example, sharing and co-operating. In children and adolescents this trait is often viewed as a core aspect of social competence and an important developmental outcome. Prosociality may also play an important role in how young people navigate their increasingly complex social world. This raises the question of whether individual differences in prosociality are related to young peoples’ well-being, such as their risk of developing psychological problems. The goal of the current series of research was to explore this question. A series of four studies was designed to answer this question. This research made use of pre-existing survey data, including the “mental health of children and young people in Great Britain, 2004” survey (Papers 3 & 4) and the “Understanding Society” survey (Paper 2), enabling access to large sample sizes. In Paper 1, a meta-analysis was undertaken to determine the nature of the relationship between prosociality and two important clinical outcomes, internalizing disorder and low self-esteem. This review identified a significant but small relationship between greater prosociality and reduced internalizing disorder or low self-esteem. In Paper 2, a longitudinal study explored the relationship between prosociality and well-being over a 1-year-period in children and adolescents. This study did not identify any prospective effect of prosociality upon subsequent changes in well-being. Two further studies explored the factors that may influence whether prosociality is linked to well-being. In Paper 3 the possibility that existing measures of prosociality may partly account for the small or null relationships observed so far (Papers 1 & 2) was explored by developing and validating a new measure of prosociality. This new measure appeared psychometrically robust and demonstrated advantages over pre-existing scales of prosociality. In Paper 4, a cross-sectional study was undertaken to explore whether the discrepancy in young peoples’ self-ratings and parental ratings of prosociality has a relationship with emotional problems (i.e., depression and anxiety). A moderator analysis found that self-rated and parent-rated prosociality may interact to determine risk of psychological problems in young people. This study suggested that the discrepancy in ratings of prosociality may be more important in predicting psychological problems than overall ratings by individual informants. Results support the relevance of prosociality to well-being in young people and highlight how factors such as the measurement of prosociality and the interpersonal context within which it occurs impact upon this relationship.

International students generally face unique challenges when studying at university because they have to live in a country that may be completely different to what they are familiar with (Evivie, 2009; Goyol, 2002; Mudhovozi, 2011; Murara, 2011; Zar, 2009). International students in South Africa may face another challenge of being discriminated against by those who hold xenophobic attitudes, this depending on which country they grew up in because of the perception that students from African countries take away limited resources from South African students (Evivie, 2009; Murara, 2011; Weber, 2016; Zar, 2009). These challenges are likely to lead to difficult emotions such as frustration, fear and loneliness, which may likely impact their well-being (Evivie, 2009; Goyol, 2002; Zar,). However, there are resources and strategies in place that the international students can and do utilise in order to protect them against the emotional impact of these experiences (Evivie, 2009; Mudhovozi, 2011). These resources and strategies may come from the international students’ inner world or in their outer environment and they are likely to build and maintain resilience in the international student which may possibly contribute to their on-going well-being (Kumar & Singh, 2014; Masteen & Reed, 2005). Well-being lies at the core of positive psychology and resilience is considered a good indicator of well-being (Pawelski, 2016; Kumar & Singh, 2014; Masteen & Reed, 2005; Seligman, 2011). Although the literature speaks of the experiences of international students and their emotional impact, there is little exploration on these resources that serve as a protector against them and, in turn, positively contribute towards well-being. This study aimed to do so through the positive psychology lens, adopting the qualitative approach and using phenomenology to explore their experiences and understanding of their resilience and its contribution to their well-being. Three participants were interviewed and the data was analysed using the Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis procedure. The results show how the international students utilise a wide range of inner and outer resources that speak to their resilience and positively contribute to their on-going well-being, while living and studying in South Africa. / Mini Dissertation (MA (Counselling Psychology))--University of Pretoria, 2021. / 2022/12/31 / Psychology / MA (Counselling Psychology) / Unrestricted

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This thesis consists of three major essays that respectively investigate three factors that might influence child well-being: family income, family structure, and time spent in child care. Using the Canadian National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth (NLSCY), the first essay finds that income-based gaps in child health are statistically significant, quantitatively meaningful, and more pronounced as children age. Contrary to previous U.S. evidence, the observed income gradient in child health cannot be attributed to the protective effects of income on the incidence and severity of children’s health problems at birth and chronic conditions. This contrast may reflect the effects of universal health insurance in Canada. An instrumental variable estimator predicts a stronger causal effect of income on child health than does OLS. Also using the NLSCY, the second essay indicates that children persistently living in single-parent families have poorer health and educational outcomes compared to children persistently living in intact families. In addition, children whose parents separate during a given period exhibit worse health and educational outcomes compared to children whose parents remain together. Using a sibling fixed-effect approach substantially reduces the associations between children’s outcomes and parental separation predicted by OLS, but several gaps, especially in mental health, remain statistically significant and quantitatively meaningful. Using time-use data taken from the General Social Survey (GSS), the third essay finds that parental time spent in child care continuously and dramatically increased in Canada between 1986 and 2010. The increase in average time spent in child care applied to all gender and education groups but was associated with a growing dispersion in child care time. While more highly educated parents are more likely to spend time in child care, the education-based gaps in child care time are found to decline. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

Background: Globally, it is estimated that over 2.2 billion people do not have access to clean water, and over 375 million people live in slums and informal settlements in sub-Saharan Africa. Specifically, within Kenyan informal settlements, unequal access to clean water can affect people's overall well-being, which is exacerbated by socio-economic factors. However, until recently, there has been limited research on the relationship between water insecurity and psychological, social and spiritual well-being. This study examines the relationship between water insecurity and the well-being of people living in Kenyan informal settlements. Methods: Data were drawn from the Resource Insecurity and Well-being in Informal Settlements (RisWIS) study in Kenya (N=965). Surveys were done using multi-stage sampling. Participants over 16 years old who were most educated about household resource vulnerabilities were interviewed from these households. Water insecurity was measured using the HWISE scale. Psychological and psychosocial well-being measures were assessed using the WHO-5 Well-being Index and the Keyes (1998) Social Well-Being Scales and spiritual well-being was measured using the Spiritual Well-Being Scale (SWB) developed by Ray Paloutzian and Craig W. Ellison. We treated spiritual well-being as a continuous and binary variable, doing both linear and logistic regression at the bivariate level. Then, multivariable models were built, including significant variables at p<0.05. Findings: Based on 965 participants, 47% scored above the median (M=18.1; range 0-36) for the water insecurity measure. The median psychological well-being score was 7 (range: 0-23) and 56 (range: 0-68) for the social well-being score. The median psychological well-being scale and spiritual well-being score were 33 (range: 0-50). After adjusting for variables at p<0.05, water insecurity was significantly associated with psychological well-being (b: -0.116; 95%CI: -0.158—0.074) but not psychosocial well-being (b: 0.011; 95%CI: -0.055-0.077) in the linear analysis and similarly for the logistic analysis. Additional significant measures in the linear multivariable analysis included gender, monthly income, socioeconomic status, number of children <5, housing type, religion and district of residence. For the logistic analysis, significant measures in the multivariable analysis included monthly income, socioeconomic status, number of children<5, district of residence and housing type. Water insecurity was also significantly associated with spiritual well-being (b: -0.116; 95%CI: -0.158—0.074) in the linear and logistic analyses (AOR:0.942; 95%CI:0.925-0.960). Additional significant measures in the linear multivariable analysis included monthly income and religion. Significant measures for the multivariable logistic analysis included monthly income, socioeconomic status, district of residence, and housing type. Interpretation: Within Kenyan informal settlements, water insecurity negatively affects the population, specifically their psychological well-being. An increase in water insecurity is associated with a decrease in psychological well-being and an increased likelihood of experiencing depression symptomatology. Conversely, increased water insecurity is associated with better social well-being. Additionally, this study revealed that as water insecurity increases, spiritual well-being decreases when adjusting for other socio-economic factors. The study's cross-sectional design limits causal conclusions but allows us to develop foundational knowledge regarding water insecurity and well-being for future studies and policy development. Our results indicate that future policy should address challenges related to gender, socioeconomic challenges, monthly income, housing type and the district of a population. / Thesis / Master of Health Sciences (MSc)

Yes / Tranquillity trails (TTs) are designed to provide a quiet and peaceful walk through mainly leafy lanes and roads and connect green open spaces where visitors can stop for thought and relaxation. There are numerous health benefits from being in close proximity to nature and TTs can facilitate this contact in mainly urban areas. This study involved the design of a trail in Tramore, a coastal town in south east Ireland. The trail links an old coastguard station, now converted to a cultural centre and coffee shop, with a Japanese garden. The trail includes a coastal path with fine views across a bay, wooded areas as well as leafy residential streets. The design of the trail was facilitated by the use of a previous developed tranquillity rating prediction tool (TRAPT) that involved the estimation of the level of man-made noise and the percentage of natural features in view. Participants who had completed the whole of the trail were encouraged to complete a questionnaire to gauge any benefits. As expected, it was reported that there were increased levels of relaxation and reduced stress. It was concluded that the approach can be used elsewhere to improve the well-being of residents and visitors.

The purpose of this study was to investigate college student athletes' psychological health and well-being in the months immediately following graduation/retirement, which has been indicated as a critical time period. Participants consisted of collegiate athletes (N = 166; women = 138, men = 28; Mage = 21.84 years, SD = 0.86) who were surveyed at the end of their competitive seasons when they were graduating and retiring from their sports (Time 1) and 3 to 4 months later (Time 2). Athletes completed measures of readiness to graduate/retire, depression, body satisfaction, and satisfaction with life at Time 1; they completed the measures of psychological well-being at Time 2. Bivariate correlations revealed six dimensions of retirement readiness related to outcomes at Time 2: seeing self as more than an athlete, maintaining social support, neglecting other areas of life, achieving sport goals, utilizing sport career services and developing a new focus after retirement. Through a series of hierarchical regression analyses, one of reach psychological well-being outcome, I entered the Time 1 measure and gender in Step 1 and then the correlated dimensions for that outcome at Step 2. For body satisfaction, F(5, 160) = 27.281, p < .000, adj. R2 = .443, only Time 1 Body Satisfaction was a significant predictor (β = .639). For depressive symptoms, F(5, 160) = 17.110, p < .000, adj. R2 = .328, Time 1 depression (β = .462) predicted higher levels whereas developing a new focus upon ending career their sport career predicted less depression at Time 2 (β = -.161). Finally, for satisfaction with life, F(7, 158) = 18.336, p < .000, adj. R2 = .424, being male (β = -.165), being more satisfied with one's life at Time 1 (β = .436), maintaining social support networks (β = .199), and having a new focus upon ending sport careers (β = .140) predicted more life satisfaction at Time 2. Although no dimensions were significantly related to higher body satisfaction, a new focus after retirement and social support were essential in understanding the athletes' satisfaction with life and depressive symptoms three to four months post retirement. Future research may continue to apply longitudinal methods to follow the retirement process up to six months to a year, explore gender, race, and NCAA Division differences, identify what is incorporated in an athlete's new focus or examine other dimensions of body image that may better represent it during retirement. Universities may look to implement career assistance programs focusing on these psychosocial factors to prepare athletes for their retirement experiences.

This dissertation explores whether families of incarcerated fathers are more likely to experience food insecurity as a result of the conviction of the father. More specifically, I test whether food insecurity explains some of the devastating consequences of paternal incarceration on mothers and children. Because children of incarcerated fathers are at higher risk of following their fathers’ footsteps, this cycle of incarceration can be self-perpetuating. I try to determine how policy can be used to break this cycle. This dissertation examines the role of food insecurity in explaining the negative impact of paternal incarceration on the well-being of mothers and children. The United States has experienced a huge prison boom over the last 40 years. A growing proportion of the incarcerated population are parents. Children growing up with one or both parents missing tend to have long-lasting disadvantages. Previous studies have attempted to suggest a few mechanisms through which paternal incarceration has negative consequences for families but has not considered the role of food insecurity. I propose a theoretical framework to show that paternal incarceration negatively affects mothers and children through food insecurity. Using a longitudinal study of fragile families, I find that food insecurity explains some of the negative consequences of paternal incarceration on maternal depression. On the other hand, food insecurity plays no role in the effect of paternal incarceration on child behavior problems. The findings also cast doubt on whether paternal incarceration affects child well-being. The implications for policy are two-fold. First, reducing food insecurity would mitigate the negative effects of paternal incarceration on maternal depression. More research is needed in order to understand whether the negative effects of paternal incarceration on maternal well-being can be further mitigated. Second, prison reform would do little to reduce the behavior problems experienced by children of incarcerated fathers. Rather than incarceration, other factors contributing to social disadvantages could explain why children of incarcerated fathers have more behavior problems than other children.

This dissertation explores whether families of incarcerated fathers are more likely to experience food insecurity as a result of the conviction of the father. More specifically, I test whether food insecurity explains some of the devastating consequences of paternal incarceration on mothers and children. Because children of incarcerated fathers are at higher risk of following their fathers’ footsteps, this cycle of incarceration can be self-perpetuating. I try to determine how policy can be used to break this cycle. This dissertation examines the role of food insecurity in explaining the negative impact of paternal incarceration on the well-being of mothers and children. The United States has experienced a huge prison boom over the last 40 years. A growing proportion of the incarcerated population are parents. Children growing up with one or both parents missing tend to have long-lasting disadvantages. Previous studies have attempted to suggest a few mechanisms through which paternal incarceration has negative consequences for families but has not considered the role of food insecurity. I propose a theoretical framework to show that paternal incarceration negatively affects mothers and children through food insecurity. Using a longitudinal study of fragile families, I find that food insecurity explains some of the negative consequences of paternal incarceration on maternal depression. On the other hand, food insecurity plays no role in the effect of paternal incarceration on child behavior problems. The findings also cast doubt on whether paternal incarceration affects child well-being. The implications for policy are two-fold. First, reducing food insecurity would mitigate the negative effects of paternal incarceration on maternal depression. More research is needed in order to understand whether the negative effects of paternal incarceration on maternal well-being can be further mitigated. Second, prison reform would do little to reduce the behavior problems experienced by children of incarcerated fathers. Rather than incarceration, other factors contributing to social disadvantages could explain why children of incarcerated fathers have more behavior problems than other children.

abstract: Studies suggest that graduate students experience higher rates of anxiety and depression than their peers outside of academia. Studies also show exercise is correlated with lower levels of anxiety and depression among graduate students. However, despite this evidence, nearly half of graduate students do not exercise regularly. Accordingly, I suggest universities consider adding an exercise requirement to promote graduate student well-being. One potential objection to this recommendation is that an exercise requirement is objectionably paternalistic. I answer this objection with two possible replies. First, there are reasons why the exercise requirement might not be paternalistic, and there may be sufficient non-paternalistic reasons to justify the policy. Second, there are reasons why even if the policy is paternalistic, it is not objectionably paternalistic, and may still be justified. I will offer reasons to consider paternalism in a positive light and why the exercise requirement may be an example of a good paternalistic policy. Because the exercise requirement might be justified on paternalistic grounds, there are reasons to consider other paternalistic policies to promote graduate student well-being. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Philosophy 2020