M.Sc. (Environmental Management) / South African urban areas have seen a significant number of wetlands lost or degraded in the name of development. Thus, most urban wetlands are seldom pristine, many are canalised, dredged, drained or filled. This is partly because wetlands are located in strategic locations (from an economic point of view) in the landscape, and so, are often considered as prime development land. This is unfortunate as urban wetlands perform a diverse range of valuable functions, what is more, the loss of urban wetlands impact negatively on the surrounding urban population. A typical example is that of the Libradene Wetland, found in Boksburg, Gauteng, which was partially destroyed by an attempt to construct a petrol station on it. This study explores how and why the fate of this particular wetland was sealed, with particular reference to the legislation pertaining to wetlands. The study concluded that although wetlands are protected by legislation, the enforcement of the legislation was slow. The wheels of administrative justice turn slowly, a flaw in the system the developer tried to fully exploit. In addition, unethical practises by the developer and perhaps professionals in the paid services of the developer, resulted in non-compliance with EIA regulations, the National Environmental Management Act (107 of 1998), Environmental Conservation Act (73 of 1989) and the Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act (43 of 1983). Although the development ceased, to date, no one has been brought to book and the wetland has not been rehabilitated at all. As a result of this study, a number of recommendations are made (i) consolidate the fragmented administration of environmental legislation concerning wetlands in South Africa under one government department, (ii) improve the relationships between the respective authorities at all government levels (iii) strengthen the public participation process and (iv) to strength the national wetlands database.

Mondi is an international packaging and paper company that manages over 300 000 ha of land in South Africa. After over a decade of working with Mondi to improve its wetland management, wetland sustainability practices were still not integrated into the broader forestry operations, despite some significant cases of successful wetland rehabilitation. An interventionist research project was therefore conducted to explore the factors inhibiting improved wetland management, and determine if and how expansive social learning processes could strengthen organisational learning and development to overcome these factors. In doing so, the research has investigated how informal adult learning supports organisational change to strengthen wetland and environmental sustainability practices, within a corporate plantation forestry context. How individual and/or group-based learning interactions translate to the collective, at the level of organisational change was a key issue probed in this study. The following three research questions were used to guide the research: 1. What tensions and contradictions exist in wetland management in a plantation forestry company? 2. Can expansive learning begin to address the tensions and contradictions that exist in wetland management in a plantation forestry company, for improved sustainability practices? 3. Can expansive social learning strengthen organisational learning and development, enabling Mondi to improve its wetland sustainability practices, and if so how does it do this? Cultural historical activity theory (CHAT) and the theory of expansive learning provided an epistemological framework for the research. The philosophy of critical realism gave ontological depth to the research, and contributed to a deeper understanding of CHAT and expansive learning. Critical realism was therefore used as a philosophy to underlabour the theoretical framework of the research. However CHAT and expansive learning could not provide the depth of detail required to explain how the expansive learning, organisational social change, and boundary crossings that are necessary for assembling the collective were taking place. Realist social theory (developed out of critical realism by Margaret Archer as an ontologically located theory of how and why social change occurs, or does not) supported the research to do this. The morphogenetic framework was used as a methodology for applying realist social theory. The expansive learning cycle was used as a methodology for applying CHAT and the theory of expansive learning; guiding the development of new knowledge creation required by Mondi staff to identify contradictions and associated tensions inhibiting wetland management, understand their root causes, and develop solutions. Through the expansive learning process, the tensions and contradictions become generative as a tool supporting expansive social learning, rather than as a means to an end where universal consensus was reached on how to circumvent the contradictions. The research was conducted in five phases: • Phase 1: Contextual profiling to identify and describe three activity systems in Mondi responsible for wetland management: 1) siviculture foresters; 2) environmental specialists; 3) community engagement facilitators. The data was generated and analysed through through document analysis, 17 interviews, 2nd generation CHAT analysis, and Critical Realist generative mechanism analysis; • Phase 2: Analysis and identification of tensions and contradictions through a first interventionist workshop. Modelling new solutions to deal with contractions, and examining and testing new models in and after the second interventionist workshop; • Phase 3: Implementing new models as wetland management projects and involved project implementation. This included boundary crossing practices of staff in the three activity systems, reflection and re-view in a further five progress review/interventionist workshops, and a management meeting and seminar; • Phase 4: Reflecting on the expansive learning process, results, and consolidation of changed practices, through nine reflective interviews and field observations; • Phase 5: Morphogenic/stasis analysis of the organisational change and development catalysed via the expansive social learning process (or not). The research found that expansive social learning processes supported organisational learning and development for improved wetland management by: 1) strengthening the scope, depth, and sophistication of participant understanding; 2) expanding the ways staff interact and collaboratively work together; 3) democratising decision making; 4) improving social relations between staff, reducing power differentials, and creating stronger relationships; 5) enhancing participant reflexivity through deeper understanding of social structures and cultural systems, and changing them to support improved wetland and environmental practice of staff, and developing the organisational structures and processes to strengthen organisational learning and development; and 6) using the contradictions identified as generative mechanisms to stimulate and catalyse organisational learning and development for changed wetland/environmental management.

Wetlands in South Africa are increasingly coming under threat from agriculture and urban development and rapidly disappearing, especially small, ephemeral wetlands. In response to the many threats to wetlands, South Africa has seen an increased interest in wetland research, which has introduced many methods to help standardize the approach to research, management and conservation of wetlands. Remote sensing can be a powerful tool to monitor changes in wetland vegetation and degradation leading to losses in wetlands. However, research into wetland ecosystems has focused on large systems (> 8 ha). Small wetlands (< 2 ha), by contrast, are often overlooked and unprotected due to the lack of detailed inventories at a scale that is appropriate for their inclusion. The main aim of this study was to determine if remote sensing (RS) and Geographical Information System (GIS) techniques could detect changes in small, ephemeral wetlands within areas under different management regimes in the Nelson Mandela Bay Metropole (NMBM) at different time intervals. Further, to explore the potential of hyperspectral remote sensing for the discrimination between plant species and to see if differences could be detected in the same species within two areas different management regimes. Four SPOT satellite images taken within a 6-year period (2006-2012) were analysed to detect land cover land changes. Supervised classification to classify land cover classes and post-classification change detection was used. Proportions of dense vegetation were higher in the conservation area and bare surface was higher outside that conservation area in the metropolitan open space area. Statistical tests were performed to compare the spectral responses of the four individual wetland sites using Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and red edge position (REP) .REP results for conserved sites showed significant differences (P < 0.05), as opposed to non-conserved ones. By implication, wetland vegetation that is in less degraded condition can be spectrally discriminated, than the one that is most degraded. Field spectroscopy and multi-temporal imagery can be useful in studying small wetlands.

Gully erosion is a significant and widespread feature of southern African wetlands, including the wetlands of the Krom River, Eastern Cape. Gully erosion in wetlands is consistently being viewed as a major contributing factor to wetland degradation and eventual collapse. Many gullies exist in the Krom River and Working for Wetlands has spent large sums of money to stabilise head-cuts with the expectation that further erosion would be halted and possibly avoided altogether. Observations in the Krom River wetlands have revealed that most gullies in the wetland are initiated where the width of the trunk valley has been reduced as a consequence of deposition by tributary alluvial fans that impinge on the trunk valley and reduce its width. The aim of this study was to examine variation in hydrodynamic characteristics for a range of discharges, as flow in the broad Kompanjiesdrif basin (~250 meters wide) is confined in a downstream direction to a width of less than 50 meters by a combination of a large impinging left bank tributary alluvial fan that coincides with a resistant bedrock lithology. The study was done by collecting topographical survey data using a Differential Global Positioning System in order to create a Digital Terrain Model with a suitable resolution. Flow was recorded using a Marsh-McBirney Model 2000 Flo-Mate as well as recording the flood extent for each flow condition; this was used in the calibration process of the model. Vegetation measurements were conducted in order to calculate a roughness value across the valley floor. A two-dimensional raster based flood inundation model, CAESAR-Lisflood and a one-dimensional hydraulic analysis model, HEC-RAS, were then used to simulate different parameters associated with variation in discharge, including flow velocity, water depth and stream power, thereby creating a better understanding of the hydraulic characteristics that may promote the formation of gullies in the wetland. Based on these hydraulic analyses it is evident that the effect of impinging alluvial fans on hydraulic characteristics such as flow velocity, water depth and stream power, may lead to the initiation of gullies within the Krom River wetland. This work improves understanding of the collapse of palmiet wetlands in steep-sided valleys within the Cape Fold Mountains of South Africa, and can aid in wetland management.

Loss and degradation of wetlands across Canada's prairie pothole region in Canada is severe and accelerating as on-going intensification and expansion of the agricultural land base continues to exert pressure on the remaining wetland resource. Traditionally wetlands have been regarded as unexploited wastelands to be converted to more productive agricultural uses. Although wetlands are now recognized as providing vital functions of a hydrological, ecological and social nature which have economic and social value as well as intrinsic value, difficulties in quantifying these benefits, coupled with readily calculated and realized benefits from agricultural production, result in continuing wetland losses. As well, because wetland benefits accrue to the general public rather than the private land holders who dominate the pothole region, individual owners cannot capture payment for these benefits and thus favor agricultural production over wetland retention. The primary objective of the thesis is to evaluate nonregulatory approaches to encouraging private landowner stewardship on the prairies with respect to wetland retention. From the literature, it is established that a nonregulatory approach to preserving wetlands on private lands is preferable to police power regulation from both a landowner and general public perspective. Several benefits associated with using nonregulatory tools to promote changes in landowner behavior are identified and developed into an analytical framework. Using this framework, six market and moral suasion nonregulatory tools commonly used to encourage landowners to retain wetlands are assessed for their apparent advantages and disadvantages in supporting the primary concerns of landowners faced with a decision whether to enter into a stewardship program. From this assessment, conclusions regarding probable owner acceptability of the mechanisms are drawn, acceptability being a measure for how successful the nonregulatory tools will be in promoting private stewardship of wetlands. The expected landowner appeal of the mechanisms is tested by evaluating their actual owner appeal as implemented in three on-going Canadian stewardship programs. Actual appeal is found to be fairly consistent with results from the literature analysis and conclusions from these results indicate that the mechanisms do vary in their effectiveness to encourage landowners to retain wetlands and thus vary in their ability to secure wetland acreage for protection. Data limitations are encountered in the case studies due to the infancy of stewardship programs in Canada and thus it is concluded that it will take time to demonstrate the effectiveness of nonregulatory mechanisms in promoting private landowner stewardship of wetlands. The evaluation of nonregulatory tools allows a number of recommendations to be drawn with regard to improving stewardship programs in order to effectively encourage landowner participation, the type of data base that needs to be established in order to effectively monitor the success of nonregulatory mechanisms, and opportunities for further investigation in this area of study. / Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies / Graduate

Within wetland rehabilitation projects there has been limited research that focuses on the level and nature of participation by local people, such as individuals from communal areas and landowners from private farms. The overall aim of this study was to analyze the level and nature of participation with specific reference to the holistic long term management and sustainability of wetland rehabilitation projects in Hlatikulu and Ntsikeni, KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa. Qualitative and quantitative research methods were employed in this study to examine the level of stakeholder participation in the projects. The Hlatikulu and Ntsikeni projects were undertaken on private land and government land (nature reserve) respectively. The World Overview of Conservation Approaches and Technologies (WOCAT) Framework was applied to analyze the level and nature of participation by different stakeholders that were involved in the selected projects. The study revealed that not all stakeholder groups participated in each and every phase of the projects. In Hlatikulu there was a moderate level of participation from the management of private land, but a limited degree of local participation from the Nsonge community. This, to some extent is attributed to the lack organization in the Nsonge community. There are no structures or authorities through which the process of local participation can be engaged. In Ntsikeni, although the process of continuous local involvement was limited to local Chiefs and some community representatives, the process appeared to be participatory in nature. The selected representatives report back in community meetings and other relevant forums, such as the Ntsikeni Nature Reserve Management Forum, which has been operating successfully for several years. Local people participated in the rehabilitation projects mainly as paid workers, and also in providing advice in the planning processes. For both sites, the results demonstrated that there is a need to enhance and harness active local participation in order to ensure the long term management and sustainability of the Hlatikulu and Ntsikeni wetlands. Within this study, the WOCAT framework was applied to provide insights to two sites, with different land tenure and land use contexts. The results of this study suggest that the WOCAT framework has a high potential to be applied across a diversity wetland rehabilitation sites within South Africa. / Thesis (M.Soc.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2007.

Thesis (MSc)--University of Stellenbosch, 2004. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Understanding the responses of individual plant communities to variations in near-surface water levels and to water quality is a step towards determining the critical or important factors applicable to a Rapid Wetland Assessment System. This thesis describes and discusses factors associated with wetland plant communities, with an attempt to predict changes in a wetland system. This study was initiated with a primary aim of establishing the relationship between plant communities and the variation in near-surface water levels in areas occupied by various plant communities in the Middelvlei wetland system at Stellenbosch. A second aim was to assess whether water quality had an influence on the plant communities. Seven plant communities are identified and described from this particular wetland system using standard Braun-Blanquet techniques (Typha capensis Reedswamp; Cyperus textilis Sedgeland; Pennisetum macrourum Grassland; Juncus effusus Sedgeland; Cyperus longus Sedgeland; Cliffortia strobilifera Shrubland and Populus canescens Forest). The Typha capensis Reedswamp community is found in the wettest parts of the wetlands, with a fluctuation in water table from 0.10 m above surface during the wet season to 0.43 m below surface during the dry season. The Populus canescens Forest is actively invading the wetland replacing the wetland species by modifying the wetland hydrological condition. Water samples from 35 wells, collected on a monthly basis over 11 months, are used to assess sodium, magnesium, potassium, calcium, nitrate and phosphate, pH, redoxs potencial and dissolved oxygen levels in each community, over four seasons. Both multivariate analysis (ANOVA) and regression tree analysis (CART) are applied to evaluate differences between communities or groups of plant communities on a seasonal basis. Direct gradient analysis (CCA) is used to determine the relationship between plant communities and environmental variable gradients. A wide variation in water quality condition between plant communities is present. The Typha capensis Reedswamp community is associated with low nutrient levels (phosphates and nitrates) in all seasons. The Cyperus textilis Sedgeland is associated with low levels of nitrates and high phosphate levels. The Juncus effusus Sedgeland displays the highest phosphate concentration, occurring in summer, while low nitrate levels occur in this community during all the seasons. Dissolved oxygen in the near-surface water in this wetland is at very low concentrations, and has no significant difference between communities. It plays no major role in determining the occurrence and distribution of the plant communities. Most of the water chemical constituents measured in this study are the result of multiple complex relationships, with constituent variations occurring differently between communities. A remarkable seasonal distinction in the chemical constituents in different communities is present. Despite the complex nature of the relationships between plant communities and environmental factors, the low species diversity levels through the tendency for single species dominance and the strong association of these communities with particular environmental variables, the combination of these factors all add value to the use of wetland vegetation as a good tool to indicate wetland condition. An effort to understand wetland plant communities in relation to determining environmental factors would promote the use of plant communities as user-friendly tools for wetland monitoring and assessment. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Om die reaksies van plantgemeenskappe teenoor variasies in naby-oppervlakte watervlakke te verstaan, is die eerste krities-belangrike faktor die ontwikkeling van ‘n sisteem om vleilande vinnig te assesseer. Hierdie studie se basiese mikpunt is om verwantskappe te soek tussen plantgemeenskappe in die Middelvlei Vleilandsisteem en wisseling in naby-oppervlak watervlakke. ‘n Sekondêre doel is om te bepaal of daar enige korrelasie is tussen waterkwaliteit en die plantgemeenskappe teenwoordig in die vleiland. Sewe plantgemeenskappe is in hierdie vleilandsisteem geïdentifiseer en beskryf deur gebruik te maak van standaard Braun-Blanquet tegnieke, naamlik die Typha capensis Rietmoeras; Cyperus textilis Biesieveld; Pennisetum macrourum Grasveld; Juncus effusus Biesieveld; Cyperus longus Biesieveld; Cliffortia strobilifera Struikveld en ‘n Populus canescens Woud. Die Typha capensis Rietmoeras kom in die natste dele van die vleilande voor, met vrywater wisselling vanaf 0.10 m bo grondoppervlakte, tydens die nat-seisoen, tot 0.43 m onder grondoppervlakte tydens die droë seisoen. Die Populus canescens Woud het die grootste wisseling in watervlak vanaf die grondoppervlakte tot ten minste ‘n diepte van 1.0 m gehad. Dit blyk dat die Populus canescens Woud besig is om die vleigemeenskappe aktief binne te dring deur die vleiland uit te droog. Water is maandeliks, oor 11 maande, uit 35 geperforeerde plastiek pype, sogenaamde ‘putte’ onttrek, om natrium, magnesium, kalium, kalsium, nitrate en fosfate, pH, redokspotensiaal en opgeloste suurstof vlakke se seisoenale wisseling te bepaal. Beide veelvuldige analise (ANOVA) en regressie-analises (CART) is bereken om enige betekenisvolle verskille tussen plantgemeenskappe te bepaal. Direkte Gradiëntanalise (CCA) is gebruik om die verwantskap tussen plantgemeenskappe en gradiënte van omgewingsveranderlikes te bepaal. Groot variasies in waterkwaliteit tussen plantgemeenskappe is waargeneem. Die Typha capensis Rietmoeras-gemeenskap is geassosieer met lae voedingstofvlakke (veral van fosfate en nitrate) in alle seisoene. Die Cyperus textilis Biesieveld-gemeenskap is geassosieer met lae nitraat- en hoë fosfaatvlakke. Die Juncus effusus Biesieveldgemeenskap vertoon die hoogste fosfaatvlakke, tydens die die somermaande, terwyl die nitraatvlakke deur al die seisoene ook laag bly. Opgeloste suurstof in die naby-oppervlakte water in die vleilandsisteem het deurgaans ‘n lae konsentrasie vertoon met geen betekenisvolle verskille tussen gemeenskappe nie. Dit speel dus geen belangrike rol in die voorkoms of verspreiding van die plantgemeenskappe nie Die meeste van hierdie faktore, gemeet om die waterkwaliteit te bepaal, het veelvoudige, komplekse verhoudingsverskille, gebaseer veral op konsentrasieverskille, tussen die gemeenskappe. Ten spyte van die komplekse verwantskap tussen die plantgemeenskappe en omgewingsfaktore, is die spesierykheid laag en kom die neiging tot eensoortigedominansie algemeen in die vleiland-plantgemeenskappe voor. Die sterk assosiasie tussen die plantgemeenskappe en bepaalde omgewingsveranderlikes voeg aansienlike waarde daaraan toe om vleilandplantegroei te gebruik as indikator van vleilandtoestand. ‘n Poging om die verwantskappe tussen vleiland-plantgemeenskappe en omgewingsveranderlikes algemeen te bepaal, sal die gebruikersvriendelike nut van vleiland-plantgemeenskappe vir vleilandmonitering en assessering duidelik uitwys.

Assessing the outputs and outcomes of wetland rehabilitation activities is recognised by the 'Working for Wetlands' programme in South Africa as important, but to date has been limited. An assessment of the ecological outcomes and the structural outputs of the Working for Wetlands rehabilitation implemented in the Killarney and Kruisfontein wetlands, KwaZulu-Natal, in 2005 was undertaken. The assessment of outcomes included an evaluation of the changes in terms of ecological integrity and the supply of ecosystem services, using WET-Health and WET- EcoServices assessment techniques respectively, and vegetation composition. Improvements in hydrological and geomorphic integrity were recorded in both wetlands, resulting in improved ecosystem services delivery. However, investigation of vegetation composition using the Wetland Index Value and Floristic Quality Assessment Index showed that, seven years after rehabilitation, KiNamey's vegetation composition had improved, but Kruisfontein's vegetation was still largely dominated by pioneer species and appeared to be stable, but in a severely transformed state. The response of these wetlands has shown that sites for rehabilitation should be screened before work begins, and wetlands requiring intensive management of vegetation recovery should be assessed in terms of the objectives and the anticipated benefits of the project. The assessment of the outputs included an evaluation of structural integrity, survival and cost- effectiveness. Limited issues, mostly relating to deviations from the designs during construction, were identified with regards to the structural outputs at each of the wetlands. However, the spreader canals at both Killarney and Kruisfontein wetlands were not functioning as intended and concentrated flows from the spreader canals were evident in both wetlands. The use of spreader canals should therefore be carefully planned and implemented for future wetland rehabilitation projects. Consideration of ZAR per hectare equivalent re-instated/secured provided a useful initial means of determining the cost-effectiveness of the wetland rehabilitation. However, additional factors need to be considered, such as, the nature of the rehabilitation activities, the type and size of the problem being addressed, rehabilitation of priority wetlands, limitations imposed by funders, and risks that need to be addressed by the rehabilitation strategy. Furthermore, the evaluation of the Killarney and Kruisfontein wetlands highlighted the need to revise the Water Research Commission's Wetland Management Series, especially those documents or guidelines relating to rehabilitation planning (WET-RehabPlan), interventions (WET-RehabMethods), and monitoring and evaluation (WET-RehabEvaluate).

Wetlands are an important part of the landscape as hydrogeomorphological ecosystems. Over the centuries their importance has not received relevant attention; instead they have been treated as wastelands impeding development for maximum economic benefits. Research evidence from different parts of the world has influenced the change of such negative perceptions to an extent that the issue of wetlands' rehabilitation/restoration, conservation and management is firmly on the global agenda and local agendas of various countries, as evidenced by the adoption of the Ramsar Convention in 1971, and the Working for Water and Working for Wetlands programmes of the South African government. The aim of this research was to investigate the hydrological and geomorphological functions of a headwater wetland located in the Featherstone Kloof Catchment near Grahamstown, South Africa. The research was based on the hypotheses that wetlands store sediments, attenuate floods, store water and prolong downstream flows. A literature survey was conducted to gauge the state of knowledge about wetlands, particularly their hydrogeomorphology. An attempt was made to locate the study area within the broad historical and spatial context using a number of methods, including the radiocarbon dating of wetland sediments, the review of relevant literature and the analysis of historical hydroclimatic data. The results revealed that the wetland has existed for approximately 2000 years - as the oldest radiocarbon date obtained was 1850±50 BP. An analysis of more than a century (+120 years) long Grahamstown rainfall series indicated a steady fluctuation of rainfall around the mean, with regular decada1 cycles of wet and dry spells. Years with more rain below average were more common than those with higher rainfall, and storms events were quite common in the III area over the period. The distribution of seasons in the area over a calendar year period was demonstrated through the use of evaporation data. An intensive monitoring of hydrological and geomorphological variables was carried out using a combination of methods. The topography of the instrumented site was determined using a Total Station from reference benchmarks. Hydrological measurements included a nest of forty-eight piezometers for water table monitoring, and streamflow gauges at the upstream and downstream limits of the study site. Soil stratigraphic analysis was carried out through field techniques and laboratory measurements. A survey of wetland sediments was carried out after the main floods events. Data generated were used to analyse relationships between various variables and their role on the functioning of the wetland. The water balance of the wetland was quantified. The results indicated that the wetland was able to perform the cited hydrogeomorphological functions to some extent. For example, one of the key findings of this research is that the wetland was important in sustaining base flows under normal circumstances. However, the wetland did little to attenuate large floods. The results also revealed some important questions that require further research, including the role played by extreme flood events in altering wetland characteristics, the contribution of each water balance component in the hydrological functioning of wetlands, and importance of quantifying sediment budgets of headwater wetlands. The study demonstrated the complex nature of the wetland hydro geomorphology and that certain questions about wetlands require direct field monitoring to be better understood. / KMBT_363 / Adobe Acrobat 9.54 Paper Capture Plug-in

Despite the fact that wetlands have been understood to be important for a wide range of ecosystem services, wetlands continue to be degraded globally. There has been a growing need to develop biomonitoring tools that reflect the present ecological state of wetlands, but very few attempts have been made in South Africa to achieve this, and those that have attempted this have generally achieved limited success. This study was conducted to develop and test the congruency of four selected biological indicators (dragonflies, frogs, macroinveterbrates and plants) in relation to the assessment of present ecological state using an existing method in South Africa, "WET-Health". WET-Health assessments rely primarily on transformations to a wetland that result from human impacts in both the catchment and the wetland itself. Using the tool, a health score is obtained that is consistent with the Department of Water Affairs (DWA) current "present ecological state” as applied to river health assessment. The study was conducted in agricultural settings of the Midlands of KwaZulu-Natal based on 13 wetlands. The selected wetlands were scored using WET - Health and grouped in four different ecological condition classes (A, B, C and D). Physical characteristics (wetland area, mean depth), biological characteristics (species cover/abundance, presence and species richness), and chemical characteristics (ammonia, pH, sulphate, nitrogen and phosphate) were also recorded in the selected wetlands. Nineteen different species of dragonfly were recorded in this study. The study demonstrated that dragonflies are a promising bioindicator of wetland present ecological state as the dragonfly index was found to be closely correlated with WET- Health scores. Open water bodies within the selected wetlands were the focus of dragonfly sampling, as male dragonflies are territorial and they will patrol or be found around this habitat. Emergent vegetation dominated by sedges formed the focus of macroinvertebrate sampling in this study because greater numbers of macroinvertebrate families were found in this biotope in comparison to open water areas with no emergent vegetation. A total of 47 macroinvertebrate families were recorded in this study, but SASS5 scores based on macroinvetebrates showed no correlation with WET-Health scores. A total of 10 different frog species were recorded in this study. All the species were common frog species found in most parts of the country. Frog species richness and occurrence showed no correlation with WET- Health scores. A total of twenty samples of two meter radius were measured per wetland and sampled for plant species and estimation of cover-abundance of each species per sample. Over 50 different plant species were recorded in this study, and both species accumulation and species richness showed a degree of correlation with WET-Health scores. All the wetlands in class A had generally higher species accumulation rate and species richness compared to the other wetland classes. In addition to testing the congruency of four selected biological indicators with WET- Health, water quality was measured in all the wetlands. Wetlands in class A were associated with improved water quality as the water passes through the wetland. However, wetlands in class C and D did not show consistently improved water quality between the apex and the toe of these wetlands. In some cases the water quality deteriorated as it passed through wetlands in these two classes.