The current plight of biodiversity decline has led ecologists, resource managers and policy makers to search for new approaches to reverse the gloomy trend. The aims of the present study were to investigate the potential contribution of indigenous knowledge systems in wildlife management/conservation as a basis in improving community based natural resources management projects in Botswana and to asses the link between indigenous ecological principles and conventional ecological approaches in wildlife conservation. For the purpose of this research, hunting was chosen as a parameter for assessment of the indigenous conservation/management strategies. The choice was based on the knowledge that hunting, as a consumptive form of wildlife utilisation, plays a pivotal role in the long-term viability and sustainability of wildlife populations. The research approach made use of documentary data, traditional gathering, interviews involving key informants and focus groups and participant observation. The nature and purpose of the research called for snowball sampling technique which ensured purposive sampling. The greatest challenge that face indigenous knowledge systems is that they lack systematic documentation as they are only in the minds of local people and they are orally transmitted between generations. The threat towards this knowledge base is that it is often marginalised and lost in the modern times due to fragmentation and homogenisation of cultures and traditional institutions that supported it. It was through the urgent need dictated by this status quo that this research project was conceived in an attempt to document, understand and cautiously interpret the systems and practices for potential contribution to conventional natural resources management strategies. Research findings showed that communities had resource management and conservation strategies based on sound ecological principles though these were marginalised in favour of conventional inadequate conservation attempts that had no relevance to the cultures resident within the ecosystems. It is these resource use strategies together with the traditional institutions and structures which regulated them, that suggestions and recommendations made by this research calls for their revitalisation and policy, legal and institutional reforms and harmonisation to accommodate and give way to the adoption process in conventional conservation endeavours. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1997.

Thesis (MTech. degree in Game Range Management.)--Tshwane University of Technology, 2010. / Lion (Panthera leo) social organisation in the Northern Tuli Game Reserve, Botswana, and the Venetia Limpopo Nature Reserve, South Africa, was investigated. Situated 20 km apart, the Northern Tuli Game Reserve is predominantly unfenced with unrestricted animal movements, as opposed to the Venetia Limpopo Nature Reserve which is completely fenced. Historically both lion populations have faced various but similar pressures such as safari hunting, snaring, poisoning and killing due to perceived conflict with livestock farmers.

Thesis (D. Tech.) - Central University of Technology, Free State, 2009 / All over the African continent south of the Sahara Desert, African lion numbers are plummeting to levels where, over large areas of their remaining distribution range, extinction has become a real threat. The main reason for the decreasing numbers is the increasing conflict between livestock farmers and lions. Lions are forced to kill livestock where their natural prey has been squeezed out by livestock and associated farming practices, and the farmers find it necessary to protect their livelihoods, often through the indiscriminate killing of lions. In the Kgalagadi-South region of Botswana, lion/livestock interactions present a challenge to livestock owners and wildlife managers alike. The relatively low ecological carrying capacity and occupied lion habitats in the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (KTP) force some expelled young adult and sub-adult lions southwards into the adjoining Wildlife Management Area (WMA) KD/15, which separates the KTP and the communal grazing area. This WMA most likely also contains resident prides. Some of these predators sporadically enter the livestock grazing area. Similarly, large stock often enters the WMA. It is mostly these boundary transgressions that result in livestock killing, and the reaction of livestock owners often leads to the killing of lions. To gather information concerning the nature and extent of the situation, two questionnaires were prepared with the assistance of the Department of Biostatistics of the University of the Free State, South Africa. One questionnaire targeted livestock owners while the other was aimed at wildlife officials of the Department of Wildlife and National Parks in Botswana and SANParks in South Africa. Both covered the five-year period 2002-2006. A trial run was carried out to adjust to problem-specific circumstances before fieldwork commenced. Fieldwork was done during four consecutive seasons – in January, February, April and December 2007. Thirty livestock respondents and 13 wildlife officials were interviewed during the first two excursions into the study area. The third visit was to plot the cut-line between the WMA and the grazing area (by means of a Global Positioning System or GPS) and to make first-hand observations regarding movement over the cut-line. During all four visits the environmental (including grazing) conditions and density and distribution of wildlife and stock were observed in both the WMA and the grazing areas. The information gathered points towards a seemingly unsolvable situation. The exceptionally high daytime temperatures and food scarcity, brought about by erratic rainfall, overgrazing near boreholes, generally low carrying capacity and low phosphorus (P) levels, force large stock, i.e. cattle, horses, donkeys and mules, to graze far away from the safety of the cattle-posts during the cool hours of the night, thus making kraaling impractical. Such circumstances enhance exposure to lion predation especially in or near the WMA and the KTP fence. Some lions also penetrate deep into the grazing areas, especially in the arid western part of the study area. This study revealed certain weaknesses in current wildlife and livestock management practices in the study area, the sum of which put both farmers and the lion population under extreme pressure. Most of these shortcomings can be rectified without drastic invasive methods. Such adjustments can result in improved livestock and wildlife utilisation and protection of the lions. For example: the placement of mixed phosphorus and salt licks near cattle-posts to fulfil the need for vital micro and macro elements; addressing unnecessary livestock losses, which contribute to a lower income and less tolerance towards predation (e.g. botulism, which may stem from stock chewing on bones in their desire for more phosphorus, and losses to black-backed jackal, Canis mesomelas, in poorly maintained kraals); more drinking troughs at boreholes to prevent unnecessary shoving and minimise energy waste; and the introduction of more bulls to herds to increase the calving percentage. The study further concluded that there is little reason why stockowners should consider protecting lions. It suggests that significant value can be added to the wildlife (and the protection of lions) in the specific area by making farmers and other local residents share in the relatively untapped ecotourism potential of the area.