Coal mining on the Highveld has historically served, and continues to serve as an indissoluble cog in South Africa’s development. The study contends that the inherent speculative character of coal as a finite resource results in bearing costs beyond the financial sphere. These costs at some stage of the mine life-cycle have to be accounted for. By using a Polanyian interpretation of double movement and crisis, the study argues that the manner in which natural factors such as coal have historically been inscribed in the production process, alongside labour and technology, to a large degree determine the character of productive relations in a particular society. More fundamentally, it is argued, this interaction between capital, society and nature determines the extent to which the State is able to perform its role of counter-movement against the over-exploitation of society and nature. This is demonstrated by situating the development of a former coal mining village, Rietspruit colliery, within the necessary historical phase of South African development – as hinged upon the accessibility and availability of coal, in particular from the Witbank coalfield. It is however, in a post-coal mining context that the study alludes to the unintended social costs arising from coal-led development, arguing social costs and inequality as evident at Rietspruit colliery, as effectively institutionalised. This is due to the historic function of the State vis-à-vis facilitating mineral extraction. On this basis, the study calls into question recent sustainable development discourse such as the Department of Minerals and Energy’s Sustainable Development through Mining (2009) (SDM) initiative. The study argues the notion of mineral extraction and coal mining in particular, serving as the means de jour for achieving sustainable development, as flawed. This is illustrated at Rietspruit colliery by reflecting upon the manner in which a post-mining sustainability plan was implemented. The core issue concerns the dis-embedding of social costs related to mining, including mine closure, from the necessary historical, socio-political and socio-ecological context. Compounded by a poorly enforced regulatory environment, this approach views mine closure, including the social aspects of mine closure, in a de-politicised, technocratic manner of rationalising closure as cost-effectively as possible. It is here that the utility of the socio-ecological approach is made evident, by opening up the discursive space for social justice discourses relating to the social costs of coal mining, to find common ground with discourses concerned with environmental activism. / Thesis (M.Dev.Studies)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2011.

Thesis (MDF)--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Coal export mines in the Mpumalanga Highveld region of South Africa generate growing volumes of discard coal estimated to be in excess of a billion tonnes. It presents a significant pollution hazard. Discard coal has a usable carbon content that can be used in the generation of power through the application of fluidized bed combustion technology. The objective of this study was to evaluate its potential as an economically viable fuel source for generation of electricity at the Witbank coalfields. This study was motivated by advances in fluidized combustion technology and significant changes in the South African electricity market in recent years. A holistic approach was adopted considering regulatory policy, market, technical, environmental and economic factors in the use of discard coal as an alternative fuel source. The policy and regulatory environment was assessed from the perspective of the private sector as project developer and the most likely source of funding, given government’s funding constraints. An evaluation of the future pricing structure of electricity, energy resource mix, demand growth, future development of the coal market, production of discard coal and the cost of coal was conducted. Levelised cost of electricity methodology was used to conduct the economic feasibility for comparison with the cost of Eskom’s pulverised coal technology for its new power stations. The study found that generating electricity from discard coal presents a significant commercial opportunity as its levelised cost of electricity was found to be lower than Eskom’s levelised cost of electricity for its new power stations. Plant sizes of 125 MW to 1 000 MW were considered. For plant capacities of about 500 MW and larger, the cost of electricity was found to be competitive with the current average electricity price taking into account the cost of transmission/distribution and interest charges. This is on condition that the electricity is sold to Eskom or wheeled through Eskom’s grid and sold to third parties. Otherwise, plant capacity will be limited to the maximum demand from large local users, which is expected to be considerably less than 500 MW. Currently there is no regulatory certainty on wheeling mechanisms and charges and it is an area where major policy development is required. The development of a project could be hampered by policy uncertainty and because of Eskom’s monopoly position as single buyer. The favourable results and findings of the economic evaluation conducted during this study warrant further detailed feasibility studies.

M.Sc. / Water is essential to life on our planet (Miller, 1999) because no living organism can survive without it (Kupchella & Hyland, 1993). Thus there is a demand for clean, unpolluted water to be in substantial supply. There is growing awareness worldwide of the environmental legacy of coal mining activities that have been undertaken with little concern for the environment (EMCBC, 2001). Coal mining by its nature consumes, diverts and can seriously pollute water resources (Miller, 1999). Acid mine drainage is a major problem on coalmines throughout the world (Kupchella & Hyland, 1993), and South Witbank Colliery, the main focus of this study, is no exception. Various studies that have been undertaken at South Witbank Colliery have shown that the water decanting from the mine is highly acidic (pH 2 – pH 4), and as such cannot be released into the natural watercourse (streams). Some form of water treatment to nullify or neutralise the acid levels of the mine water is necessary. Currently a temporary liming plant is being utilised to treat the water and to reduce its acidity levels to between pH 5.0 – pH 9.5, however, this plant is seen as a limited treatment option as it does not guarantee that the acidic nature of the water will be sufficiently nullified. This study endeavours to identify and analyse a variety of permanent, long-term water treatment methods relevant to acid mine water mitigation at South Witbank Colliery. Four long-term water treatment methods, namely artificial wetlands, anoxic limestone drains, transfer of water to a water treatment plant, and construction of a permanent liming facility at South Witbank Colliery, were identified and discussed. Artificial wetland technology has not been proven for treatment on such variable pollutant loads as present in the South Witbank Colliery mine water decant. A constraint to this technology also lies in its necessity for large surface area requirements, which is restricted due to site subsidence and sinkhole formation (as a result of shallow mining). This technology is also known to increase water evaporation rates, which may result in additional water removal from an already stressed resource. The anoxic limestone drain water treatment technology is considered unsuitable for the study area, ultimately due to it having more a pre-treatment functionality than a total treatment one. It is also limited due to its ability to address only certain water quality variables. If considered for use in a partnership with other acid mine drainage water treatment technologies, its use might be more viable than when considered as a stand-alone treatment technology. Transferring of the acid mine drainage water decant from South Witbank Colliery to a water treatment plant is a feasible option. The Brugspruit Water Pollution Control Works, operated by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, is the most likely option. The water treatment would become the responsibility of DWAF, thereby ensuring that the treated water is compliant with specified water quality standards and requirements. The attractiveness of this option is that it minimizes the short and long term water management requirements for South Witbank Colliery, but is ultimately dependant on a formal contract being negotiated between the relevant parties. Construction of a permanent liming facility at South Witbank Colliery is possible and, in comparison to the current temporary liming plant, is likely to treat the water adequately so as to comply with specified water quality standards and requirements. A permanent facility would allow for more water to be treated than is currently possible at the temporary liming plant. Due to this option being based on proven technology increases its feasibility in terms of use at South Witbank Colliery. Given that water is a scarce resource in South Africa, the implementation of these water treatment options is dependent on the acceptability of each option by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry. Of the four treatment options identified the latter two, namely transfer of water to a water treatment facility and construction of a permanent liming plant, are considered to be the most suitable solutions for the treatment of acid mine drainage at South Witbank Colliery.

M.Sc. / The objective of this work is to establish a regional, three-dimensional sedimentological model of the clastic strata of the Vryheid Formation and pre-existing basin floor topography of the Witbank Coalfield, South Africa. This considers an area extending from 25°30’ S to 26°30’ S by 28°30’E to 30°E. This has been undertaken using computer modelling to examine the three-dimensional distribution of the sedimentary rocks. The basis for the geological model presented in this thesis is 1190 borehole logs collected from three mining companies involved in coal extraction in the study area, namely Anglo American Coal Corporation, Duiker Mining Limited and Ingwe Coal Corporation Limited. These borehole logs are converted to a common data format for inclusion into the 3-D model. These borehole logs are correctly positioned in space using a digital elevation model. The primary objective of this research was to visualize the interburden and overburden sedimentary rocks within the study area, so as to be able to understand the distribution and hence origin of these rocks. As commercially available modelling tools have several restrictions with respect to the current work, Geovision cc. was contracted to develop the tools needed for the geological visualization of the data. Using the three-dimensional model, the distribution of the various facies and facies associations can be defined, to understand the depositional history of the basin. These characteristics include the delineation of the general trend of the basement topography. The distribution of the lower glacial and paraglacial sedimentary rocks within the study in steep-sided palaeovalleys, marked by rapid facies and thickness changes from diamictite through argillite, and minor sandstones and conglomerates is shown in 3-D. Evidence of lobate deltas and bedload sandy river deposits between the No. 2 and No. 4 Seams is presented in 3-D. The 3-D characteristics of the rocks between the No. 4 and No. 5 Seams, proposed to represent a period of deltaic progradation during an overall marine transgression is described. By using a 3-D model it is possible to evaluate the distribution of sedimentary rocks, both through space and through time. These palaeoenvironmental interpretations facilitate a better understanding of the genesis of the Witbank Coalfield. Furthermore, this enhanced geological modelling can facilitate improved mine planning and mining techniques.

South Africa remains the 5th largest producer and 4th largest exporter of coal in the world. It is also the largest supplier of coal to the European Union. This fact is significant as the European Union has recently supported the environmental lobby that threatens the combined full scale use of coal in Europe and other first world countries. This promotes the development of clean coal technologies in order to counter the ever increasing number of environmental constraints threatening the export market. One critical development in clean coal technologies is coal beneficiation, which allows the reduction of ash and inert content. Permian coals from South Africa have characteristically high ash and inertinite contents and therefore require further beneficiation. The Witbank coalfield No. 4 seam is no exception. It can be described as being more inert and having a higher mineral content compared to the No. 2 seam in the same coalfield also mined for export purposes. With the increase in environmental legislation and the push towards “clean coal” this raises a concern in terms of the performance and marketability of export coal produced from the No. 4 seam. This seam will in the future be economically significant and is still a great source for export steam coal. Due to the nature and composition of the No. 4 seam, coal beneficiation is essential to reduce the mineral and inert content to be in line with export quality specification levels. Washability characteristics of the No. 4 seam coal indicate that the No. 4 seam is difficult to beneficiate. Until recently the main clean-ability parameters evaluated in South African export coals as per customer specification included mainly heating value, moisture and ash reduction with little to no work being done on trace element concentration reduction. This paper focuses on the partitioning of the trace elements within the seam in relation to the organic and inorganic affinity of the trace elements and possible methods of trace element reduction by removal using coal beneficiation techniques. The techniques investigated include reduction by washing using dense medium beneficiation and flotation. In each evaluation the focus was on trace-element-tomineral and trace-element-to-organic matter relationship and hence setting the basis for liberation analysis to evaluate reducibility. By the evaluation of the coal mineralogy, petrography and trace element relationships, methods of optimum trace element reduction can be established. With the focus on marketing it was shown that carbon loss need not be sacrificed in the reduction of specific trace elements in the No. 4 seam and that the trace element distribution itself allows for beneficiation whilst maintaining acceptable yields. Processes and possible beneficiation techniques for optimum trace element reduction and marketability in the case of the No.4 seam are proposed.

This project was established with the aim of assessing the extent of the development of new mining communities and the extent to which sport has been involved in the development of new communities around the Witbank district. The development of this project was an endeavour to understand the extent of change in settlement practices of miners, a subject on which there is not much academic literature. From the earlier settlement of small-scale farmers in Witbank, coal mining sprouted. Until the 1980s, a large number of African workers on these mines were migrant labourers housed in single-sex compounds. When the National Union of Mineworkers (NUM) called for the abolition of hostels, the migrant system was seriously affected. With the decline of the migrant labour system, mine workers’ families have been settling with them in units located on or close to the mines. As compounds were converted into family units, African workers tasted the freedom of living with their families. The move from hostels to houses has led to the development of new ‘normal’ communities; ‘normal’ in the sense that they comprise men, women and children. The research shows that the development of new communities has not been automatic, but one that has relied, in particular, on the self-activity of the miners and their families, though often with support from colliery managers. As in the UK and US, various institutions have been involved in developing mining communities, and this study focuses on one of these, a sports association, specifically the Mpumalanga Collieries’ Human Resources Association (MCHRA). Whilst in many respects the new mining communities are similar to those considered in the UK and US, apartheid divisions continue to mark the geography of settlement, with class replacing race as the main marker of division. Sport is crucial in the secondary development of these communities; secondary in that it promotes social cohesion rather than gives rise to the emergence of communities. Nonetheless, sport has already shown its importance in Witbank. It does not only allow families to entertain themselves, but also gives the communities some escape-valve mechanism, as it keeps people busy and away from crime, drugs and alcohol abuse. This study provides valuable evidence of ordinary people taking responsibility for new social problems arising in the post-apartheid era, and they are doing this, in particular, through the mechanism of sport. / Prof. Peter Alexander Ms. Claire Ceruti

The main objective of this work is to aid coal mine planning by determining geological structures that affect mining such as faults, dykes and sills. Faults can displace the coal seams by breaking and throwing the coal seam on one side of the fault deeper; thereby constituting safety risks or even making exploitation uneconomical. Dykes are associated with devolatilisation of the coal around them. Both dykes and faults are also important in terms of groundwater management. The sills have the same devolatilisation effect as dykes but on a larger scale as they cover more area than the dykes. They also make mining difficult if one has to mine through them, especially if they are not weathered. The study was based on high resolution airborne magnetic data which was flown on selected areas in the Witbank coalfield. The combined areas cover a total of ~171001 hectares. Total field magnetic data were collected. The data were processed and gridded. The resulting total field magnetic grids were enhanced for better delineation of structures by: reducing the data to the pole, calculation of the first vertical derivatives and computation of the analytic signal. Using the enhanced grids together with other datasets; topographic maps, borehole log information and infrastructure information from the surrounding mines, the geological structures were interpreted. Intense geological activity is observed on the eastern areas of the coalfield (Belfast and Arnot). This is the region where numerous geological activities of different ages were recorded, e.g., the intrusion of Bushveld Complex, the Olifants River Dyke Swarm (ORDS) and the Karoo Basalts. Associated with the intense geological activity is the presence of dykes, faults and sills, which are observed throughout the areas. In the central region, Vandyksdrif area 1 reveals the pre-Karoo basement rocks (felsites and diabases of the Bushveld Igneous Complex) and Vandyksdrif area 2 reveals the Karoo dolerite in the form of a sill. The sill corresponds to the high elevation area on the digital terrain model data suggesting that the sill might be unweathered. Unfortunately, the borehole logs do not mention the state of the dolerite. The western areas reveal mainly the dolerite sill. Like in Vandryksdrif area 2, there is no mention of the state of the dolerite and the suspicion is that the dolerite is also unweathered there as well. Copyright / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2010. / Geology / unrestricted

The motivation for this study is the increase of treatment needs of heroin dependents at SANCA, (South African National Council of Alcohol and Drug Abuse) Witbank. SANCA Witbank wants to ensure that the most effective treatment can be supplied. Research goals are to:  Do a literature study of out-patient treatment programmes.  Assess the needs of heroin out-patient dependents with regard to out-patient treatment programmes.  Make recommendations with regard to out-patient treatment programmes for heroin dependents. It was an exploratory research subject and the data collection methods were qualitative and quantitative. Interview schedules were used as research tools. Schedule B was completed by the researcher with heroin dependents that visited SANCA Witbank for the period 31 January 2005 to 4 February 2005. Schedule A was completed by the researcher with personnel of SANCA out-patient clinics and the questions were discussed and completed telephonically. The conclusion is that the treatment programme of SANCA Witbank is in line with the rest of the drug dependent field and only minimal recommendations were made. / Social Work / MA(SS)(MENTAL HEALTH)

The motivation for this study is the increase of treatment needs of heroin dependents at SANCA, (South African National Council of Alcohol and Drug Abuse) Witbank. SANCA Witbank wants to ensure that the most effective treatment can be supplied. Research goals are to:  Do a literature study of out-patient treatment programmes.  Assess the needs of heroin out-patient dependents with regard to out-patient treatment programmes.  Make recommendations with regard to out-patient treatment programmes for heroin dependents. It was an exploratory research subject and the data collection methods were qualitative and quantitative. Interview schedules were used as research tools. Schedule B was completed by the researcher with heroin dependents that visited SANCA Witbank for the period 31 January 2005 to 4 February 2005. Schedule A was completed by the researcher with personnel of SANCA out-patient clinics and the questions were discussed and completed telephonically. The conclusion is that the treatment programme of SANCA Witbank is in line with the rest of the drug dependent field and only minimal recommendations were made. / Social Work / MA(SS)(MENTAL HEALTH)

>Magister Scientiae - MSc / Mining has a lengthy history in South Africa, and subsequent beneficiation processes have been conducted with little regard for the environment, thus leaving the land with un-rehabilitated abandoned mines. Currently, most of these abandoned mine sites are no longer operational and they continuously contaminate soil, air and water resources in various areas where mining took place. This study looks at the treatment of contaminated mine water using the Dispersed Alkaline Substrates (DAS) which is a new South African technology that uses a variety of substrates to neutralize and raise the pH of mine water while lowering the solubility of potentially dangerous metals.