Among all types of psychiatric disorder, depression is the most prevalent one which affect nearly one third of the contemporary adult population. Depression also ranks top with regard to women’s health and is now contributing heavily to the global disease burden. WHO makes clear that the overall rates of women's depression confirmed across all centers are almost 2 times higher than that of men. This review was performed with aim to examine the risk factors of female depression in developing countries. It also focuses on the strategies and policy recommendations for policy makers. In summary, results included poverty, educational level, unemployment, being unmarried, marital crisis, victims of violence, undesired pregnancies, lack of social support, poor relationships with parents and in-laws, history of depression, were associated with perinatal depression. Besides, financial difficulties, not living with parents, lack social support, expose to violence, bad school behavior and maternal depression were associated with female adolescent depression. / published_or_final_version / Public Health / Master / Master of Public Health

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Washington State University, August 2008. / Includes bibliographical references (p. 129-142).

Thesis (Ed. D.)--Teachers College, Columbia University, 1987. / Typescript; issued also on microfilm. Sponsor: William Sayres. Dissertation Committee: Paul Byers. Bibliography: leaves 191-202.

published_or_final_version / Comparative Literature / Master / Master of Philosophy

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in Community Work in the Department of Social Work University of Zululand, 2000. / The purpose of this study was to assess the efficiency of womens' development projects particularly agricultural extension projects with the aim of investigating their administration and impact on womens' livelihoods. The central view held by this study was that the important role played by women and the potential to fulfil an even greater role has been overlooked to a large extent in South Africa. Although there are numerous organisations and projects aimed at development at the rural and community level, very little attention has been paid to the role of women and the enhancement thereof. Special focus of the study was on women only development projects as it was assumed that these projects are starting points from which developing areas can start a movement of planned development. It was discovered that womens' development projects are still having some flaws because the recognition of such projects is still lacking from the work of development planners. Essentially, the problem encountered among project participants was that of dual or multiple roles performed by women and such environmental problems like lack of access to markets, transportation and theft of produce. Training, management and organisation, empowerment and capacity building is still lacking in project participants. Basically those women who participate in projects do so from destitution. They are old, uneducated and poverty- stricken such that very little about these projects seems to be attractive and very little income is being generated from them The study revealed that an awareness of the importance of development of women has started to surface, and some efforts are being made to accommodate women and to raise them. (v) The critical view of extension projects was that they comprise strengthening the autonomy of women to alleviate poverty. This suggests that women should be brought fully into the development projects and must be given opportunity to put their abilities to full use at every stage of the development process. Extension projects must be seen therefore to be acknowledging this reality. To achieve this, womens' extension projects have to be reconsidered so that they lead to women becoming effective and efficient managers, administrators and decision -makers. Ongoing support and training is needed to ensure that the skills and expertise of women who are project participants are gradually being improved and they are afforded a chance to develop and have equal access to opportunities at all levels in the society. / National Research Foundation and University of Zululand

Thesis (M.A. (Administration and Development)) --University of Limpopo, 2010 / Feminist studies show that gender inequality is an impediment for livelihoods diversification among rural households. Whereas women are understood to be the designers, planners and managers of livelihoods for household survival, their roles in diversification of the means of earning a living are generally undermined through a myriad of social and cultural laws, values, norms and beliefs. Despite the publicity, attempts and efforts in redressing gender inequality in a demographic South Africa, the dissertation argues that gender inequality in rural areas has remained persistent, posing an obstacle to the capacity of households to diversify their livelihoods. The study uses survey results from Sebayeng Village in order to demonstrate that the community’s perceptions of women’s roles perpetuate the status quo wherein women’s capacity to diversify livelihoods are undermined. The survey involved 200 households that were sampled through the simple random design. The respondents consisted of 56.5% females and 43.5% males. The survey results demonstrate that gender inequality remains deep in Sebayeng Village and that such inequality negatively affects the ability of households to diversify their livelihoods. Therefore, this study tends to confirm the general principle that gender inequality renders women as unexplored resources in rural development. To that extent, the study concludes that one of the tests for the success in gender transformation in South Africa is in releasing the energies of women in the sphere of livelihoods diversification.

Authority as it operates in the daily lives of married women in Gcaleka society is reinforced and maintained by a body of avoidances which women need to observe during their married lives. Avoidances constitute part of the control system in the society whereby wives are being 'kept in their place'. Avoidances do not only restrict her, but also safeguard her position and her interests. Lines of authority emerge through the process of interaction; the structure reveals itself as avoidances are acted out in time and space. This study was conducted in Qwaninga, an administrative area in the coastal area of the Willowvale district, Transkei. The research started out as a study of ritual impurity and the status of women in a traditional, 'red' Gcaleka society. It soon became clear that pollution practices and beliefs associated with women form part of a greater body of avoidances which women need to observe during their married lives. Avoidances entail economic, dietary, sexual, linguistic and spatial prohibitions; as well as restrictions concerning what a woman is supposed to wear, and her withdrawal from social life. These restrictions are enforced through certain ritual and other sanctions. Three forms of avoidances are identified in this study, and are discussed and analysed. Avoidances are found in the everyday male/female division in society; in the ways through which the wife shows respect towards her husband and her in-laws (especially her husband's ancestors); and in the reproductive situations a woman finds herself in from time to time. In many anthropological studies in the past women have often been hidden in the background. This study is an attempt to give women the prominence they should be given, to show that nonwestern women are not as subordinated as people in Western society like to assume. In Gcaleka society the authority structure affecting the position of women is not only based on a distinction being made between males and females. It will be shown that a finer authority structure operates in this society whereby gender as well as age and kinship distinctions are being made. These distinctions constitute a system of classification which is safeguarded and protected by the avoidances and other restrictions imposed on women.

It is widely accepted as fact that the creation of a stable financial system is the catalyst which facilitates economic development and prosperity. However, developing countries which embark on a path of change often forget the cardinal rule: addressing the needs of those who suffer from poverty, inequality, and political strife. In other words, change starts from the ground up; not the other way around. First among the challenges facing these countries, is the need to change the lending rules followed by traditional financial institutions- banks and other private lenders- who are unwilling to provide their services to individuals with little income and few if any assets that can be used as collateral. Second, global organizations like the United Nations, World Bank, and the International Monetary Fund have failed to provide aid in a way that forces the creation of positive and sustainable change for fragile and destabilized societies. For this reason, many developing countries which receive financial aid are no better off than they were before the interventions occurred, and in some cases worse. Finally, other aid programs and even well-intentioned government efforts to reduce poverty fail simply because they are misguided. Too much attention and financial resources are devoted to grand schemes of long-term duration and not enough is given to impacting human lives in the present. In 1973, visionary economist Muhammud Yunus witnessed his beloved country of Bangladesh sinking into the deepest realms of poverty; much of its population in despair and left without hope of extricating itself from a bleak existence. The problem was compounded by the fact that its government was preoccupied with matters of State iii rather than those of its people; its financial institutions were oblivious to the pain and hunger which surrounded them, and international donors were simply giving away money without any form of control or direct involvement. Out of this scenario, Yunus started with an idea that would alter not only his life, but the lives of people in Bangladesh and the world over: micro-finance. To this day, nearly every text written on the subject calls micro-finance a weapon in the fight against global poverty, but only a mere few recognize just how much of the gains made in this ―fight‖ are attributable to the direct involvement of women in micro-financing. This thesis posits that while Muhammud Yunus created an idea for the benefit of ―the global poor‖, it actually became a medium for the empowerment of women around the world. In fact, much of the praise awarded to micro-finance as success omit recognition of what should be obvious: the driving force behind the success of microlending is (poor) women. This statement does not seek to diminish the merits of an idea which has put a significant mark on the global economy, or to ignore the accomplishments of millions of men who through hard work have overcome poverty. However, what began as a genderless effort to help the poor of Bangladesh soon changed to one that overwhelmingly favored women. To this day, lending primarily to women has become the modus operandi of the microfinance industry for one reason above all: because women have proven they are a good business risk. The first part of this thesis will analyze the birth and development of the microfinancing system with special emphasis on its creator, Muhammed Yunus and the financial institution he founded for the purpose of implementing his idea, Grameen Bank. The second part will review the growth of micro-financing across the world with iv focus on Kiva, a web-based organization which represents the melding of micro-finance with 21st century technology. Finally, the thesis will look at Pro Mujer, a micro-financing organization which has successfully operated in Latin America for the last 20 years and developed a niche that expands the horizons of empowerment.

Thesis (M.Admin. (Development)) --University of Limpopo, 2010 / Feminist studies show that gender inequality is an impediment for livelihoods diversification among rural households. Whereas women are understood to be the designers, planners and managers of livelihoods for household survival, their roles in diversification of the means of earning a living are generally undermined through a myriad of social and cultural laws, values, norms and beliefs. Despite the publicity, attempts and efforts in redressing gender inequality in a demographic South Africa, the dissertation argues that gender inequality in rural areas has remained persistent, posing an obstacle to the capacity of households to diversify their livelihoods. The study uses survey results from Sebayeng Village in order to demonstrate that the community’s perceptions of women’s roles perpetuate the status quo wherein women’s capacity to diversify livelihoods are undermined. The survey involved 200 households that were sampled through the simple random design. The respondents consisted of 56.5% females and 43.5% males. The survey results demonstrate that gender inequality remains deep in Sebayeng Village and that such inequality negatively affects the ability of households to diversify their livelihoods. Therefore, this study tends to confirm the general principle that gender inequality renders women as unexplored resources in rural development. To that extent, the study concludes that one of the tests for the success in gender transformation in South Africa is in releasing the energies of women in the sphere of livelihoods diversification.

M.A. / In the former Republic of Venda, many people lost their jobs when industries that had mushroomed during the 1980's pulled out of the area. This happened just prior to the collapse of the Bantustan government. The most affected were women who, because of lack of education, could not get employment within and outside of the province. As a way of alleviating poverty, people resorted to selfemployment and community development projects. Different community development projects were started throughout Venda. Some non-governmental organisations (NGOs) helped women who were unemployed by giving them training and help them to start projects such as sewing, knitting, chicken farming, creches and small-scale gardening. The training of people in different skills was done as a way of helping to equip communities so that they may start projects that they could manage, and that could become selfsustainable. The new South African government, through its Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP), also assisted the poverty-stricken rural areas to start generating projects that would generate jobs for the people. These programmes involved the communities, the NGOs and the government through the RDP. Short and long term projects that were considered suitable by the members and community developers in the different areas were started. In order to maintain the smooth running and the co-ordination of all their projects, many communities instituted Community Development Committees (CDC). The CDC was an umbrella body within a community whose members had been elected by the community itself. The main task of the CDC was to help the different `Community Development Project' (CDP) committees responsible for the different projects within the community to obtain funds from different sources. They also helped to organise training for interested project members. In most cases, they worked hand in hand with the civic association committees and the traditional leaders, as well as the community members themselves. In this study, I have compared the activities of the community gardening projects within two rural communities. These two gardening projects are at Mangondi and Tshisahulu rural areas in Venda within the Northern Province. In their attempts to fight unemployment and poverty, these two communities (like many other communities within the Province and Venda in particular) embarked on the establishment of several community development projects, gardening being one of them. Most of the gardeners in these two projects are women. These women vary in age, education and family situations. The aim of this study was to establish the problems facing rural women in their attempts to free themselves from the grip of poverty and unemployment that continues to render them marginalised. The provision of government policy on the problem of women's rights on land ownership was also examined. The method of research used in the collection of data during field work was the interview method. This method was most preferred because it allowed me an opportunity to ask questions directly to these gardeners most of whom cannot read or write. A literature study was done on the role and activities of women in small gardening projects and the development process. It is my wish that this work be of assistance to the development workers and the policy-makers as well as the RDP officers of the Northern Province under which this area falls.