A research project submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Anthropology in the Faculty of Arts at the University of Zululand, South Africa, 2002. / African migration to South Africa is not a recent phenomenon bu in recent history, dates back to about one hundred and fifty years when African men migrated from some southern African countries to work in the South African mines. During this period however, the apartheid regime restricted African entry into the labour market of South Africa to contract mine workers, who were obviously men. Due to the abolition of apartheid. African migration to South Africa now has a gender profile. SkPIed, professional and businesswomen of African origin are now migrating independently to South Africa. This new face oftAfrican migration is transforming South African society and culture. African women from other countries have migrated to South Africa with parts of their cultures (their dresses and their food). In South Africa, these women have acquired both positive and negative identities. The negative identities expose them to discrimination in South Africa. On the other hand, the positively acquired identities nave given the women economic independence in their families and an occupational identity in their professions. In their attempt to adjust to life in South Africa, African migrant women encounter difficulties as a result of the restrictionist immigration policy of South Africa. These women are not happy with such a policy which is based solely on economic considerations. African women claim that they struggled alongside South Africans to bring apartheid to an end and were promised by the ANC-in-exilc that they were going to be welcome in an apartheid- free South Africa. These women claim that Iliey are here to make a contribution, which is clearly portrayed by their occupational experiences. This study portrays the fact that African migrant women arc impacting on South African society and are being impacted by it as well. As tempting as it is. it would be a mistake by the South African government to dismiss the current contribution made by these women both in the formal and informal sector of the South African economy. Coining from other African countries which have been plagued with political turmoil, degrading poverty and worsening of peoples living conditions (especially with the consequences of the implementation of the structural adjustment programs), migrant women have learnt to use their initiative, especially in the area of small businesses. This has enabled the women to transform their financial situations in their families. Diverse strategies have been utilised in this transformation; the inherent but powerful social networks which aided in relocating to new or particular areas in South Africa, financial and social support from their "fictive kin" system. As a "modus operandi" for Ghanaian migrant women hairdressers, country men/wo men are employed from Ghana and brought to South Africa to work in their hair salons. Since South Africans believe that Ghanaians are the best hairdressers, the migrant women have decided to employ as many Ghanaians in their salons as possible, to keep their businesses busy even in their absence. Some of the migrant women have opened food shops where indigenous West African foods are sold to the migrant population. These shops are placed in strategic places, like in central Durban which is accessible to all living in KwaZufu-Natal. In the formal sector, most of (lie migrant women were among tlic first black women lo occupy certain positions, which were previously occupied by white South Africans. Positions such as supervisors in catering departments in Iiospitals. lecturers and head of departments at some universities are examples of the empowering contribution of migrant women to South African society. These women's lives have also been impacted by South African society, especially in the apartheid era. Considering the precarious conditions under which mizrant women from Zambia lived in KwaZulu-Natal in the apartheid era (they were considered as spies because Zambia hosted some of the A.N.C-in-exile and I.F.P dominated this area), it was in their best interest to watch every step they took because they could have been killed. However, they live to tell of how they narrowly escaped death. Migration to South Africa by migrant nurses which once was considered as an opportunity to "have their own share of the gold" has turned to disillusionment. They have been caught in the web of the immigration policy of South Africa. The conditions for a migrant to stay in South Africa depend on how scarce his/her skill is. Nursing which was considered a scarce skill in the 1990s is no longer scarce. This has led lo a second migration to England by the nurses. Despite the recent increase in this second migration, some have decided to use the opportunities of working and studying in South Africa to obtain university degrees, which they believe will improve their financial situations. According to the remarks made by some of the migrant women, th;y are happy lo be where they are, for, comparatively. South Africa still has the best to ofler migrant women in the African continent. However, the migration literature shows that researchers in the field of migration have been gender-blind. Independent skilled, career and businesswomen of African origin have been side-lined in scholarly research on migration in post apartheid South Africa. In collecting data used for this study, the snowball method of sampling was used because other me! hods were not appropriate. The population of study was made of a core sample often women, although interviews were conducted informally with a cross-section with other migrant women. The study of independent African migrant women is an example of an ethnographic account at its best.

This dissertation takes as its subjects East European Jewish women who sold sex in their homelands and/or abroad and situates their engagement in sex work within the broader structures these women navigated – labor markets, state laws on residence and migration, community and family. This project turns working-class Jewish women, who migrated within and from Eastern Europe and sold sexual services, into protagonists in their own story and writes them back into modern Eastern European Jewish economic and migration histories. Between 1870 and 1939, Eastern European Jews suffered from consistent official and unofficial anti-Jewish discrimination in the labor market. This discrimination, combined with ongoing economic changes and crises, hindered Jewish socio-economic advancement and instead drove more and more Jews into poverty. Both married and single women were pressed financially to find gainful employment but encountered a labor market with too few opportunities. In these circumstances, the state-sanctioned sex industry, which was Jewish madams and pimps had their part, provided them with economic prospects and facilitated their physical mobility, which was a privilege in this period. By 1914, Jews, especially women, found it almost impossible to leave the Russian Empire legally. After the Great War, immigration restrictions became a virtually global phenomenon, again severely limiting the options of Jews for leaving Eastern Europe. In the interwar years, anxieties about trafficking turned into laws restricting single women's movement and preventing immigration to popular destinations, such as the United States or Argentina. Despite these challenges, some Eastern European Jewish women who sold sex turned out to be particularly mobile. They moved within Eastern Europe, crossing borders between empires, and regularly circulated across seas and oceans to the Middle East and the Americas. By viewing these women as economic actors and labor migrants, this dissertation seeks to reconceptualize prostitution as one of the ways in which Eastern European Jews from the working poor navigated the transformative and increasingly challenging period between 1870 and 1939. This rewriting of Jewish prostitution as a rich social history of Eastern European Jewish women from the lower classes relies on a wide range of sources that, on the one hand, provide access to the women’s voices (though rarely unmediated) and, on the other, expose how class-biased and moralistic interpretation has been imposed on their life stories. Unlike most of the previous studies on this topic, this project looks at Jewish prostitution from the Eastern European perspective and uses materials produced by this Jewish population and the surrounding society – Jewish and non-Jewish press in Polish, Yiddish, and Hebrew; Habsburg, Russian, and Polish state-produced labor and prostitution reports as well as ministerial and police records.

Lau, Ying Chui Janice. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2008. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 219-235). / Abstracts in English and Chinese; includes Chinese characters. / Abstract / Acknowledgement / Chapter 1 / Introduction --- p.1 / Background --- p.4 / Defining Female New Immigrants --- p.7 / Literature Review --- p.10 / Methodology --- p.22 / List of Informants --- p.25 / Thesis Structure --- p.27 / Chapter 2 / History of Female Mainland Migrants in Hong Kong --- p.30 / Invisible Female Migrants --- p.31 / Immigration Policy as Identity Marker --- p.35 / Gender Implications in the Immigration Policy --- p.37 / Shifts in Social Policy and Social Capital --- p.41 / Hong Kong Identity: a Gender Perspective --- p.45 / "Class, Popular Culture and Identity Politics" --- p.50 / Conclusion --- p.53 / Chapter 3 / Hongkongness in the Classroom --- p.56 / Learning Hong Kong English --- p.60 / Learning “accentless´ح Cantonese --- p.70 / Learning Proper Behavior --- p.78 / Learning the Hong Kong Spirit --- p.87 / Conclusion --- p.94 / Chapter 4 / Reconstructing Womanhood --- p.96 / Dressing up in Hongkong-Style --- p.100 / Reconstructing a Hongkong-Style Beautiful Face --- p.104 / Learning to be a Wife of Hong Kong Man --- p.109 / Learning to be a Hong Kong Mother --- p.116 / Marital Relationship and Adaptation --- p.119 / Conclusion --- p.137 / Chapter 5 / Empowerment and Disempowerment --- p.140 / Empowerment --- p.141 / Structural Resources --- p.143 / Gain and Loss of Capital --- p.147 / Defining Capital: Social Workers and Class Teachers --- p.152 / Redefining Capital: Mainland Women Migrants´ة Agency --- p.157 / Evaluation of Achievement --- p.163 / Breaking Down of Cultural Boundaries --- p.163 / Discarding Stereotypes --- p.166 / Constructing New Relations --- p.169 / Disempowerment --- p.175 / Conclusion --- p.186 / Chapter 6 / Conclusion --- p.189 / A Uniquely Hong Kong Process --- p.189 / Keeping an Imagined Boundary --- p.195 / Imitating Hongkong-Style Womanhood --- p.199 / Women´ةs Empowerment and Disempowerment --- p.203 / Policy Implications and Recommendations --- p.206 / The Way Ahead --- p.213 / Appendixes --- p.215 / Bibliography --- p.219

La thèse a pour objet l'émancipation des femmes issues de l'immigration. Elle propose d'évaluer les effets de la migration et de l'accès au marché du travail sur l'émancipation des filles de migrantes d'origine marocaine en Belgique francophone.<p>L'étude tente d'abord de mettre en lumière le rôle des femmes immigrées dans l'histoire de la Belgique en le ré-articulant à l'histoire sociale, l'histoire des femmes et l'histoire de l'immigration. Ensuite, elle montre que l'approche dominante des travaux sur les migrations ne prend pas en compte la dimension du genre, ce qui a pour conséquence de masquer la différenciation des expériences migratoires selon le sexe. Enfin, elle replace l'analyse du statut des femmes immigrées et de leurs descendantes dans la complexité des rapports sociaux de sexe, de race et de classe afin de mieux rendre compte des réalités concrètes et de sortir du simplisme des approches culturalistes.<p>La thèse développe une analyse des politiques d'intégration (politiques éducative, de l'emploi et de lutte contre les discriminations) visant l'émancipation des immigrées et en évalue l'impact sur les filles de migrant-es d'origine marocaine. Elle présente enfin les trajectoires individuelles des filles de migrant.es marocain.es et examine les facteurs individuels et collectifs favorisant leur émancipation.<p> / Doctorat en sciences sociales, Orientation sociologie / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished