Please read the abstract in the section front of this document / Dissertation (MSc (Geology))--University of Pretoria, 2008. / Geology / unrestricted

The Drybones Bay kimberlite has offered an opportunity to compare geophysical observations of the mantle lithosphere beneath the southwest Slave craton with geochemical and petrological interpretations through mantle xenoliths and xenocrysts. Coarse-textured garnet and spinel-garnet peridotite xenoliths, and garnet and garnetclinopyroxene xenocrysts were analyzed for a suite of trace elements. The Ni-in-garnet geothermometer (Canil, 1999) yielded equilibration temperatures between 850-1200 DC, and corresponding depths of 90-160 km, assuming a 41m Wm-2 paleogeotherm. This method estimates the thickness of the southwest Slave craton in the Ordovician at approximately 160 km, within the stability field of diamond. Trace element analysis revealed a distinct geochemical anomaly at a depth of approximately 120 km, which marks the transition from wehrlite to metasomatized wehrlite and lherzolite. This anomalous depth has been observed in geophysical studies, and has been interpreted as a structural discontinuity. / Graduate / 0372

The Tertiary ultrabasic dykes of the Cuillins and the Strathaird peninsula are studied and classified on the bases of their content of cognate xenoliths and textures. Two principal types are, recognised, the Coire Lagan type (similar to those studied by Drever and Johnston, 1958) and the xenolithic Ben Cleat type. The dykes of the Ben Cleat type are investigated in detail. The Ben Cleat dykes are composed principally of olivine (Fa11), plagioclase (Ang4 with normally zoned margins) and clinopyroxene (Ca43 Mg46 Fe11) with accessory chrome spinel: the compositions of these minerals are constant throughout the dykes. The transverse variations in modal amount and crystal size of the three principal minerals within selected representative dykes have been determined and it is established beyond doubt that the dykes are differentiated. The petrogenetic hypothesis of composite intrusion previously proposed for these dykes by Bowen (l928) is examined in the light of this evidence and found to be inadequate. It is suggested that the dykes were intruded as suspensions of olivine crystals and rock fragments in an ultrabasic liquid from which plagioclase, pyroxene and a small amount of olivine subsequently crystallised. It is demonstrated that the dykes are unlikely to have been differentiated in their present positions and the possibility that the differentiation occurred during their emplacement is examined. The processes by which, crystals might migrate in flowing magma are considered, and it is shown that the mineral distributions and crystal size variations occurring in the dykes are analogous to those expected, from the results of theoretical and experimental investigations, to arise during laminar flow of suspensions of solid particles in a viscous fluid in vertical conduits. Several of the apparently anomalous differentiation phenomena are also interpreted in the light of theoretical fluid mechanics as the results of flow in near-vertical fissures. It is concluded that (i) the dykes were each intruded as a single pulse of ultrabasic liquid containing large amounts of olivine phenocsrysts,?(ii) the distinctive type of differentiation which is characteristic of these dykes occurred during their intrusion and (iii) the mechanism involved was flowage differentiation. The petrographiea of the cognate xenoliths are studied and their distribution and orientation explained on the basis of laminar flow of the dyke magma. The age of the xenolithic ultrabasic dykes in relation to the other intrusions of the Cuillin Tertiary igneous complex is reconsidered and it is suggested that the dykes were emplaced contemporaneously with the Sgurr Dubh ultrabasic intrusion. Petrogenetic hypotheses are advanced for both the dykes; and the cognate xenoliths and it is tentatively proposed that both were derived by partial fusion of a deep-seated peridotitic rook.

Intraplate volcanism that has created the Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain is generally thought to be formed by a deep-seated mantle plume. While the idea of a Hawaiian plume has not met with substantial opposition, whether or not the Hawaiian plume shows any geochemical signal of receiving materials from the Earth’s Outer Core and how the plume may or may not be reacting with the overriding lithosphere remain debatable issues. In an effort to understand how the Hawaiian plume works I report on the first in-situ sulfides and bulk rock Platinum Group Element (PGE) concentrations, together with Os isotope ratios on well-characterized garnet pyroxenite xenoliths from the island of Oahu in Hawaii. The sulfides are Fe-Ni Monosulfide Solid Solution and show fractionated PGE patterns. Based on the major elements, Platinum Group Elements and experimental data I interpret the Hawaiian sulfides as an immiscible melt that separated from a melt similar to the Honolulu Volcanics (HV) alkali lavas at a pressure-temperature condition of 1530 ± 100OC and 3.1±0.6 GPa., i.e. near the base or slightly below the Pacific lithosphere. The 187Os/188Os ratios of the bulk rock vary from subchondritic to suprachondritic (0.123-0.164); and the 187Os/188Os ratio strongly correlates with major element, High Field Strength Element (HFSE), Rare Earth Element (REE) and PGE abundances. These correlations strongly suggest that PGE concentrations and Os isotope ratios reflect primary mantle processes. I interpret these correlations as the result of melt-mantle reaction at the base of the lithosphere: I suggest that the parental melt that crystallized the pyroxenites selectively picked up radiogenic Os from the grain boundary sulfides, while percolating through the Pacific lithosphere. Thus the sampled pyroxenites essentially represent crystallized melts from different stages of this melt-mantle reaction process at the base of the lithosphere. I further show that the relatively low Pt/Re ratios of the Hawaiian sulfides and the bulk rock pyroxenites suggest that, upon ageing, such pyroxenites plus their sulfides cannot generate the coupled 186Os-187Os isotope enrichments observed in Hawaiian lavas. Therefore, recycling of mantle sulfides of pyroxenitic parentage is unlikely to explain the enriched Pt-Re-Os isotope systematics of plume-derived lavas.

This dissertation consists of four chapters, each of which is either published in a peer-reviewed journal, or in submission. These chapters developed from the testing of the hypothesis that the lithospheric mantle contains significant magnetic regions that contribute to the magnetism observed/measured, either at or close to the Earth’s surface, or from satellite data. Chapter 1 “Eight good reasons why the mantle could be magnetic” (2014) published in Tectonophysics by Ferré, Friedman, Martín-Hernández, Feinberg, Till, Ionov and Conder, addresses the motivation for this project and establishes the probability of upper mantle contribution to magnetic anomalies. My role with this manuscript was to produce figures using my previously collected data (Figures 2, 4, and 6), compile known data on the magnetic properties of minerals in mantle peridotites (Table 1), provide discussion for and against each argument made, and edited the manuscript. Chapter 2 “Remanent magnetization in fresh xenoliths derived from combined demagnetization experiments: Magnetic mineralogy, origin and implications for mantle sources of magnetic anomalies” (2014) published in Tectonophysics by Martín-Hernández, Ferré, and Friedman, investigates the natural remanent magnetization of mantle xenoliths. Notably, it establishes that the natural remanent magnetization of these xenoliths is derived from a thermoremanent magnetization (primary) and not from chemical remanent magnetization (secondary) origin. My primary role in this study was to provide preliminary magnetic and petrologic data and analysis of the samples. Secondary responsibilities were to prepare the samples, edit the manuscript and provide discussion on the results. Chapter 3 “Craton vs. rift uppermost mantle contributions to magnetic anomalies in the United States interior” (2014) published in Tectonophysics by Friedman, Feinberg, Ferré, Demory, Martín-Hernández, Conder, and Rochette begins to compare magnetic properties across different tectonic settings. The metasomatized cratonic upper mantle of the United States interior contains ferromagnetic phases that exist at temperatures lower than the Curie temperature. This upper mantle would likely contribute to magnetic anomalies. Alternatively, the high geotherm and sulfide-rich mantle near the Rio Grande Rift precludes this area from mantle contribution to magnetic anomalies. As first author I prepared samples, ran experiments, processed data, produced figures, wrote the manuscript and applied for funding. Chapter 4 “What is magnetic in the mantle wedge?” (2015) submitted to Geology, examines the mantle wedge beneath multiple island arcs. Magnetic anomalies in island arc settings have been attributed to a serpentinized mantle wedge. While this material is not available to test, metasomatized mantle, common to the mantle wedge, is available. Metasomatized mantle is mostly paramagnetic, and thus supports that stepwise dehydration of a subducting slab may produce positive and negative anomalies in the mantle wedge. As first author I prepared samples, ran experiments, processed data, produced figures, wrote the manuscript and applied for funding.

Xenoliths are pieces from the surrounding bedrock, brought to the surface of the earth by host magma. On Gran Canaria, the largest island in the Canary Islands archipelago, strange xenoliths have been found. They are light in color, porous and very different from the basaltic magma carrying them. By studying petrological features and oxygen isotope content of the xenoliths, the focus of this report will be to investigate their origin. The minerals and texture of 14 samples were studied in thin section, and the δ18O–value was determined for 17 samples. The mineralogical composition of xenolith glass was examined by EPMa. The results show that the xenoliths are rich in silica rich glass, quartz and feldspars, but also have high calcium content. 9 of 14 xenoliths have textures and δ18O–values from 8.1 ‰ to 16.77 ‰, similar to sedimentary rocks. The remaining xenoliths are metamorphosed and exhibit altered phenocrysts, indicating they have been melted and recrystallized. The latter group also has extremely low δ18O–value, which could be explained by the effects of hydrothermal processes. Most likely all the xenoliths originate from the prevolcanic sedimentary deposits beneath Gran Canaria.

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(理学) / 甲第18802号 / 理博第4060号 / 新制||理||1584(附属図書館) / 31753 / 京都大学大学院理学研究科地球惑星科学専攻 / (主査)教授 竹村 惠二, 教授 平原 和朗, 教授 大沢 信二 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Science / Kyoto University / DGAM

Cumulate xenoliths erupted with alkalic hawaiite lavas from a postshield cinder cone on Mauna Kea, Hawaii include a variety of mafic and ultramafic rock types. Previous studies of major and trace element compositions of minerals in the xenoliths are interpreted to show transitional to alkalic magma parentages from the postshield stage, although any orthopyroxene-bearing xenoliths are considered to have tholeiitic parents. Major element compositions minerals were analyzed using the electron microprobe and trace element compositions of clinopyroxene grains were analyzed by laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. In this study, major element compositions of clinopyroxene, olivine and plagioclase grains and trace element compositions in clinopyroxene grains in xenoliths lacking orthopyroxene indicate a transitional magma parentage consistant with postshield magmas. Trace element compositions of possible parent magmas of the xenoliths were calculated from clinopyroxene compositions using partition coefficients for basaltic liquids from Hauri et al. (1994). Liquids calculated from the clinopyroxene in the xenoliths were compared to Mauna Kea shield lavas and to the postshield Hamakua and Laupahoehoe units. Chondrite-normalized rare earth element (REE) patterns of liquids calculated from both orthopyroxene-bearing xenoliths and those without orthopyroxene were similar REE patterns of both Mauna Kea postshield tholeitic and alkalic lavas. Liquids from a wehrlite and an olivine gabbronorite have REE patterns similar to tholeiitic shield basalts. To better distinguish the transitional xenolith sources as one of Mauna Kea's two postshield substages, the older, basaltic Hamakua unit or the younger hawaiitic Laupahoehoe unit, variation diagrams compared calculated liquid compositions to Mauna Kea lavas from the shield and postshield stages. Calculated liquid trace element concentrations are similar to those of Hamakua lavas.

The oceanic lithosphere forms as a residue of partial melting of the mantle beneath the mid-ocean ridge axis. Subduction of this residual layer has a profound impact on the Earth’s thermal and geochemical cycles as the recycling of this layer facilitates heat loss from the Earth’s interior and induces geochemical heterogeneities in the mantle. The goal of this study is to understand the thermal and geochemical evolution of the oceanic lithospheric mantle from a petrological perspective. An empirical geobarometer is calibrated for ocean island xenoliths in order to understand the thermal structure of the oceanic lithospheric mantle. The results of 0.1 MPa experiments from this study and high-pressure experiments from previous studies are used in the calibration. The uncertainties on pressures derived using the above geobarometer are high and hence could not be tested against thermal models for the oceanic lithosphere. The geochemical evolution of the oceanic lithospheric mantle involves post-melting geochemical modifications such as metasomatism. The geochemical evolution of the uppermost oceanic lithospheric mantle is studied using harzburgites from Hess Deep ODP Site 895, which are depleted in moderately incompatible elements relative to the global suite of abyssal peridotites. A comparison between Yb-abundances in Hess Deep harzburgites iii iv and those of a model depleted MORB mantle (DMM) residue reveals that the harzburgites have undergone up to 25% melting, assuming 0.5% melt porosity. Higher light and middle rare earth elements in the Hess Deep harzburgites than the model DMM melting residue are interpreted as the result of plagioclase crystallisation from melts being extracted by diffuse porous flow through the upper mantle. The effect of plagioclase crystallisation does not affect the chemistry of residual mineral phases as evidenced from the depleted light rare earth element abundances in clinopyroxene relative to the bulk rock. Ocean island xenoliths are studied to understand when and where metasomatism occurs in the deeper portion of the oceanic lithosphere. The median values of measured and reconstructed bulk concentration of Al2O3 in most ocean island xenoliths is lower than in abyssal peridotites, which generally would be interpreted as indicating a higher extent of melting in the former. However, a comparison between Yb- abundances in ocean island xenoliths and abyssal peridotites with a model DMM melting residue suggests that the extents of melting in the suites of rocks are broadly similar. Although fewer in number than ocean island xenoliths, abyssal peridotites from several locations have low concentrations of moderately incompatible elements. Metasomatism is observed in both, ocean island xenoliths and abyssal peridotites in the form of higher bulk rock Ce and Nd concentration than the model DMM melting residue but the extent of metasomatism is higher in ocean island xenoliths. There is no correlation between the concentrations of bulk rock Ce, Nd, Sm and Eu of ocean island xenoliths and age of the oceanic lithosphere from which the xenoliths originate. It is interpreted that metasomatism in the lower oceanic lithospheric mantle occurs near the ridge axis above the wings of the melting column. / Graduate / 0996 / 0372

O Kimberlito Indaiá, situado 25 km a norte da cidade de Monte Carmelo, na região oeste de Minas Gerais, é intrusivo em granitóides cataclasados associados ao Grupo Araxá, na Faixa de Dobramentos Brasília. O corpo apresenta forma subcircular e diâmetro principal de 220 m na direção NE-SW; em sua porção NE ocorre uma intrusão de kamafugito associada de 120 m de diâmetro. A rocha exibe coloração cinza escura e textura inequigranular bem destacada, sendo constituída por uma matriz afanítica na qual estão dispersos macrocristais de olivina (abundantes), ilmenita, flogopita e piroxênio, além de xenólitos mantélicos e crustais de dimensões variadas. Os xenólitos mantélicos são constituídos, em ordem de abundância, por harzburgitos (41%), lherzolitos (37%), dunitos (14%), mica piroxenitos (6%) e xenólito polimítico (2%). Os harzburgitos, lherzolitos e dunitos exibem, além das fases primárias (olivina, enstatita e diopsídio), teores subordinados de espinélio, cromita, diopsídio, flogopita, ilmenita e raro anfibólio. A textura predominante é grossa (protogranular), ocorrendo subordinadamente as texturas granoblástica e porfiroclástica. Análises químicas por microssonda eletrônica revelaram que as fases silicáticas possuem valores Mg/(Mg+Fe) maiores em harzburgitos e dunitos e menores nos lherzolitos. Os mica piroxenitos (flogopita+enstatita+ilmenita) e os xenólitos polimíticos (olivina+diopsídio+ilmenita+flogopita) apresentam mineralogia mais complexa, possuindo em adição magnetita, perovskita, barita, zircão, badeleíta, pentlandita, galena e uma fase mineral rara ainda não identificada. As razões Mg/(Mg+Fe) das fases silicáticas são mais baixas que as dos xenólitos de peridotitos. As características químicas da flogopita e da ilmenita destes xenólitos indicam similaridades com os xenólitos da suíte MARID. A variedade textural dos xenólitos estudados, de grossa (protogranular) a granoblástica, é uma evidência de processos de recristalização por deformação mecânica. A aplicação de geotermômetros da literatura para os espinélio lherzolitos forneceu temperaturas de equilíbrio entre 655 a 908°C, em concordância com dados de outras intrusões do oeste mineiro. A presença de flogopita e ilmenita sob a forma de bolsões nos xenólitos de peridotitos, bem como nos mica piroxenitos e xenólitos polimíticos, são indicativos da atuação de processos de metassomatismo no manto da região de Monte Carmelo. / The Indaiá Kimberlite, located 25 km North of Monte Carmelo in the western Minas Gerais State, is intrusive in cataclased granitoids related to the Araxá Group, part of the Brasilia Fold Belt. The body has a subcircular 220-meter head-diameter shape (NE-SW); its an associated 120-meter diameter intrusion of kamafugite occurs in its NE portion. The rock is dark gray and displays prominent inequigranular texture, consisting of an aphanitic matrix in which macrocrystals of olivine (abundant), ilmenite, pyroxene and phlogopite, as well as mantle and crustal xenoliths of different sizes are dispersed. These mantle xenoliths are composed, in order of abundance, by harzburgites (41%), lherzolite (37%), dunite (14%), mica pyroxenite (6%) and polymictic xenolith (2%). Harzburgites, lherzolites and dunites exhibit, besides the main minerals (olivine, enstatite and diopside), small amounts of spinel, chromite, diopside, phlogopite, ilmenite and rare amphibole. The predominant texture is coarse (protogranular); subordinately, granoblastic and porfiroclastic textures are observed. Chemical analysis by electron microprobe showed that the silicate phases have higher values of Mg/(Mg+Fe) in harzburgites and dunites as compared to lherzolites. Mica pyroxenite (enstatite + phlogopite + ilmenite) and polymictic xenoliths (olivine + diopside + phlogopite + ilmenite) have more complex mineralogical features than the other xenoliths, showing in addition magnetite, perovskite, barite, zircon, baddeleyite, pentlandite, galena and a rare phase not yet identified. The Mg/(Mg+Fe) ratio in silicate phases are lower than in the peridotite xenoliths. The chemical characteristics of phlogopite and ilmenite of these xenoliths indicate similarities with the MARID suite xenoliths. The textural variety of the studied xenoliths, from coarse (protogranular) to granoblastic, is an evidence of crystallization processes by mechanical deformation. T he application of geothermometers described in the literature to spinel lherzolites yielded equilibrium temperatures between 655 and 908 ° C, agreeing with data from other intrusions from western Minas Gerais. The presence of ilmenite and phlogopite in the form of pockets in peridotite xenoliths, as well as in mica pyroxenite and polymictic xenoliths, is indicative of mantle metasomatic processes in the Monte Carmelo region.