Submitted by Haroudo Xavier Filho (haroudo.xavierfo@ufpe.br) on 2016-02-26T15:08:26Z No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) 239 - BARROS, PATERNAK.pdf: 6573117 bytes, checksum: e23aa387cb0a47320b0256bd80fd47e4 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-02-26T15:08:26Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) 239 - BARROS, PATERNAK.pdf: 6573117 bytes, checksum: e23aa387cb0a47320b0256bd80fd47e4 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-06-19 / CNPq / A convecção, embora amplamente estudada e discutida, na confecção de dissipadores de calor, possui um papel secundário na soldagem, pois a condução é responsável pela maior parte do calor dissipado. Na mesma linha, a convecção forçada é negligenciada, pois a presença de ventos em juntas soldadas apresenta-se como a principal fonte de descontinuidades. Partindo desta realidade o presente trabalho atua em três frentes para avaliar a possibilidade de utilizar a convecção forçada como favorecedora à soldagem. Na primeira frente, analisou-se o comportamento da convecção. Para tal pequenas chapas SAE 1011, cujo comprimento característico aproxima-se ao de uma poça de fusão, são aquecidas a diversas temperaturas e resfriadas, na posição horizontal, sob a ação de diversas velocidades de fluxo de ar. A segunda frente avaliou como a convecção afeta o modelo matemático do campo de temperatura. Esta análise embora realizada através de linhas de calor em chapas SAE 1020, simula a distribuição de temperatura em juntas soldadas. E por fim, foram realizadas soldas MAG em chapas SAE 1020. Avaliando-se o efeito de um fluxo de ar na formação da zona termicamente afetada obtendo-se uma redução de oitenta e cinco por cento. / Although the convection studied and discussed widely in the manufacture of heat sinks, in welding has a secondary role, because the conduction is responsible for most of the dissipated heat. Similarly, is neglected the forced convection, because the presence of winds in welded joints is the main source of discontinuities. Starting from this reality, this work operates on three fronts to assess the possibility of using forced convection as favoring the welding. On the first front, has analyzed the behavior of convection. For such, small SAE 1011 sheets, whose characteristic lengths approach the dimensions most commons of a weld pool, are heated to various temperatures and cooled in the horizontal position, under the action of different speeds of airflow. The second front evaluated the convection effects on the mathematical model of the temperature field. This analysis, performed through heat lines on SAE 1020 sheets, simulate the temperature distribution in welded joints. Finally, conducted MAG welding in SAE 1020 sheets. Where evaluated the effect of airflow in the formation of heat affected zone resulting in a reduction of eighty-five percent.

Aços ferríticos ligados ao cromo e molibdênio, como o ASTM A335 P22, são largamente utilizados nos geradores de vapor em plantas termoelétricas ao redor do mundo e podem apresentar trincas por fadiga durante sua operação. A montagem dos componentes dos geradores de vapor em campo é realizada através de técnicas manuais de soldagem e tem sido apontada como um fator crítico para a qualidade destes equipamentos quando algum parâmetro de soldagem é negligenciado durante o processo. A região soldada de um aço ligado sofre grande influência do ciclo térmico durante a soldagem, cujos elementos de liga mesmo em pequenas quantidades presentes no aço e metal da solda aumentam a temperabilidade, e que dessa forma favorece a formação de microestruturas bainíticas ou martensíticas na região soldada. Neste estudo, uma solda realizada de acordo com o procedimento qualificado, com pré-aquecimento e alivio de tensões pós-soldagem, foi comparada com uma solda realizada sem os tratamentos de pré-aquecimento e alivio de tensões, e foi comparada ainda com uma solda realizada sem os tratamentos térmicos de pré-aquecimento e alivio de tensões e com aporte de calor acima do determinado pelo procedimento. Para isto, o desempenho de cada solda foi analisado quanto ao desempenho nos ensaios de tração, dobramento lateral (requisitos de qualificação de procedimento pelo código ASME IX), e nos ensaios complementares de resistência ao impacto charpy e tenacidade à fratura de cada região principal da solda (Material base, ZTA e Metal de adição). A tenacidade à fratura de cada uma das regiões foi determinada através da técnica da mecânica da fratura elasto-plástica do Deslocamento da Abertura da ponta da trinca, \"Crack Tip Open Displacement\" (CTOD), aplicada a materiais dúcteis. O resultado deste estudo comparativo mostra que mesmo negligenciando os limites dos parâmetros do procedimento de soldagem especificado para o aço ASTM A335 P22, com espessura de 21mm e 304,8mm de diâmetro, o procedimento teria sido aprovado nos ensaios de qualificação estabelecidos pela norma (tração e dobramento lateral). Contudo, os resultados dos ensaios de Impacto charpy e CTOD realizados nas regiões da solda, mostraram que o metal de adição apresentou tenacidade bem a baixo do que foi observado para a ZTA e para o material base. Desta forma a realização do pré-aquecimento e tratamento de alívio pós-soldagem produziu microestruturas de menor dureza, mas que não refletiu em um aumento da tenacidade do metal de adição. / Ferritic alloy steels with chromium and molybdenum, as ASTM A335 P22, are widely used in steam generators in power plants around the world and may have broken fatigue during operation. The assembly of the components of the steam generators in the field is performed by manual welding techniques and has been identified as a critical factor for the quality of these devices when some parameter is ignored during the welding process. The welded region of an alloy is influenced thermal cycle during welding, alloying elements present in the steel and weld metal increases hardenability, and thus favors the formation of bainíticas or martensitic microstructures in the welded region. In this study, a weld made according to the procedure qualified, pre-heating and post-weld relief of stress was compared with a weld treatments performed without preheating and relieving stress, and was further compared with a solder heat treatments performed without preheating and stress relief heat input and determined by the above procedure. For this, the performance of each weld was analyzed for performance in tensile tests, lateral bending (qualification requirements of ASME IX by procedure code), and testing of Charpy impact resistance and toughness of each major region of the fracture weld (base material, HAZ and weld metal). The fracture toughness of each region was determined by fracture mechanics technique of elastic-plastic fracture Crack Tip Open Displacement (CTOD) applied to ductile materials. The result of this comparative study shows that even neglecting the parameters limits of the welding procedure specified for ASTM A335 P22 with thickness of 21mm and diameter of 304.8 mm, the procedure would have passed in qualification tests established by ASME IX (tensile and lateral bending). However, the results of Charpy impact and the CTOD tests performed in weld regions showed that the weld metal had a very low tenacity than was observed in the HAZ and the base material. Thus the realization of pre-heating and post-weld treatment relief produced microstructures with lower hardness but that was not reflected in an increase in the toughness of weld metal.

Aços ferríticos ligados ao cromo e molibdênio, como o ASTM A335 P22, são largamente utilizados nos geradores de vapor em plantas termoelétricas ao redor do mundo e podem apresentar trincas por fadiga durante sua operação. A montagem dos componentes dos geradores de vapor em campo é realizada através de técnicas manuais de soldagem e tem sido apontada como um fator crítico para a qualidade destes equipamentos quando algum parâmetro de soldagem é negligenciado durante o processo. A região soldada de um aço ligado sofre grande influência do ciclo térmico durante a soldagem, cujos elementos de liga mesmo em pequenas quantidades presentes no aço e metal da solda aumentam a temperabilidade, e que dessa forma favorece a formação de microestruturas bainíticas ou martensíticas na região soldada. Neste estudo, uma solda realizada de acordo com o procedimento qualificado, com pré-aquecimento e alivio de tensões pós-soldagem, foi comparada com uma solda realizada sem os tratamentos de pré-aquecimento e alivio de tensões, e foi comparada ainda com uma solda realizada sem os tratamentos térmicos de pré-aquecimento e alivio de tensões e com aporte de calor acima do determinado pelo procedimento. Para isto, o desempenho de cada solda foi analisado quanto ao desempenho nos ensaios de tração, dobramento lateral (requisitos de qualificação de procedimento pelo código ASME IX), e nos ensaios complementares de resistência ao impacto charpy e tenacidade à fratura de cada região principal da solda (Material base, ZTA e Metal de adição). A tenacidade à fratura de cada uma das regiões foi determinada através da técnica da mecânica da fratura elasto-plástica do Deslocamento da Abertura da ponta da trinca, \"Crack Tip Open Displacement\" (CTOD), aplicada a materiais dúcteis. O resultado deste estudo comparativo mostra que mesmo negligenciando os limites dos parâmetros do procedimento de soldagem especificado para o aço ASTM A335 P22, com espessura de 21mm e 304,8mm de diâmetro, o procedimento teria sido aprovado nos ensaios de qualificação estabelecidos pela norma (tração e dobramento lateral). Contudo, os resultados dos ensaios de Impacto charpy e CTOD realizados nas regiões da solda, mostraram que o metal de adição apresentou tenacidade bem a baixo do que foi observado para a ZTA e para o material base. Desta forma a realização do pré-aquecimento e tratamento de alívio pós-soldagem produziu microestruturas de menor dureza, mas que não refletiu em um aumento da tenacidade do metal de adição. / Ferritic alloy steels with chromium and molybdenum, as ASTM A335 P22, are widely used in steam generators in power plants around the world and may have broken fatigue during operation. The assembly of the components of the steam generators in the field is performed by manual welding techniques and has been identified as a critical factor for the quality of these devices when some parameter is ignored during the welding process. The welded region of an alloy is influenced thermal cycle during welding, alloying elements present in the steel and weld metal increases hardenability, and thus favors the formation of bainíticas or martensitic microstructures in the welded region. In this study, a weld made according to the procedure qualified, pre-heating and post-weld relief of stress was compared with a weld treatments performed without preheating and relieving stress, and was further compared with a solder heat treatments performed without preheating and stress relief heat input and determined by the above procedure. For this, the performance of each weld was analyzed for performance in tensile tests, lateral bending (qualification requirements of ASME IX by procedure code), and testing of Charpy impact resistance and toughness of each major region of the fracture weld (base material, HAZ and weld metal). The fracture toughness of each region was determined by fracture mechanics technique of elastic-plastic fracture Crack Tip Open Displacement (CTOD) applied to ductile materials. The result of this comparative study shows that even neglecting the parameters limits of the welding procedure specified for ASTM A335 P22 with thickness of 21mm and diameter of 304.8 mm, the procedure would have passed in qualification tests established by ASME IX (tensile and lateral bending). However, the results of Charpy impact and the CTOD tests performed in weld regions showed that the weld metal had a very low tenacity than was observed in the HAZ and the base material. Thus the realization of pre-heating and post-weld treatment relief produced microstructures with lower hardness but that was not reflected in an increase in the toughness of weld metal.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-12T17:34:56Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 arquivo1987_1.pdf: 3028758 bytes, checksum: 3edf99738959cd78ff66d44c220cfd7f (MD5) license.txt: 1748 bytes, checksum: 8a4605be74aa9ea9d79846c1fba20a33 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010 / Fundação de Amparo à Ciência e Tecnologia do Estado de Pernambuco / A soldagem é aplicada em diversos seguimentos industriais e é a forma mais difundida e empregada quando, deseja-se a união de materiais metálicos de maneira econômica e confiável. Mas para se conseguir uma boa adequação dos parâmetros nestes aspectos existe a necessidade do domínio dos fatores que afetam os processos de soldagem. A qualidade do produto final é uma preocupação do seguimento metalúrgico que exige especial atenção. Podemos compreender aços microligados como uma família de aços que apresentam em sua composição química, alguns elementos de liga que se localizam em posições intrínsecas nos grãos ou nos contornos de grãos. Os elementos de liga comumente presentes são V, Ti, Nb, Mo, entre outros. A melhoria nas propriedades mecânicas são bastante significativas, os custos de produção encontram-se em patamares praticáveis, o que os tornam bastantes atrativos aos setores industriais automotivos, de mineração e petrolífero. Pouco estudo tem sido dedicado a este tema e os dados levantados sobre as propriedades mecânicas da junta soldada ainda não são conclusivos. Ainda há muito a se estudar sobre a influência dos parâmetros de soldagem de um processo FCAW-G sobre as propriedades mecânicas destes aços estruturais. Com o intuito de intensificar os esforços para a elucidação de algumas dúvidas que circundam o processo FCAW-G na aplicação em tubulações do tipo API 5L Grau X-80, este trabalho de dissertação vem contribuir somando esforços na tentativa de responder a algumas das perguntas sobre os parâmetros de soldagem utilizados no processo e sua interação com a citada família de aços. Neste sentido o trabalho de pesquisa se preocupa em discutir o processo de soldagem por arame tubular com proteção gasosa, FCAW-G, quando aplicado a juntas de aço estrutural microligado da família dos aços API 5L Grau X-80. Propondo-se como principal objetivo avaliar a influência dos parâmetros de soldagem no processo FCAW-G sobre a microestrutura da Zona Termicamente Afetada pelo calor (ZTA) e sobre as propriedades mecânicas em juntas de aço API 5L Grau X-80. Fica como contribuição dados que comprovam ser possível a utilização de um único processo de soldagem, o FCAW-G, para a união de tubulações do tipo API 5L Grau X-80 de maneira a atender aos requisitos de qualidade exigidos pelos setores mencionados

No description available.

[pt] Os aços inoxidáveis Duplex são materiais metálicos que tendem a aliar uma excelente resistência à corrosão em meios agressivos com elevada resistência mecânica devido à sua microestrutura bifásica. Essa microestrutura é composta por uma matriz ferrítica e ilhas de austenita, a temperatura ambiente, com frações volumétricas aproximadamente iguais dessas duas fases. Com isso, estas ligas costumam ser utilizadas em tubulações e equipamentos industriais onde se requer elevada relação resistência/peso, especialmente em empreendimentos de construção e montagem off-shore. Este trabalho apresenta uma metodologia desenvolvida com a utilização de um modelo numérico parametrizado baseado no método de elementos finitos para analisar o efeito dos ciclos térmicos de soldagem nos aços duplex e leanduplex. O modelo desenvolvido faz uso da análise térmica transiente da soldagem, em que as propriedades térmicas dos materiais envolvidos são termo dependentes, e grandes gradientes térmicos são gerados entre a região da solda e as áreas afastadas dela. Procedimentos experimentais para medição dos ciclos térmicos empregados sob determinados regimes de soldagem são utilizados para calibrar o modelo numérico. A metodologia é aplicada ao estudo do comportamento de uma solda na forma de cordão sob chapa contendo um único passe, realizada com o processo GMAW, em chapas planas de 10mm de espessura dos aços duplex UNS32205 e leanduplex UNS32304, através de um modelo de elementos finitos. Os resultados mostram uma boa correspondência entre o modelo numérico e o resultado experimental. / [en] Duplex stainless steels are metallic materials that tend to combine excellent corrosion resistance in aggressive environment with high mechanical strength due to their biphasic microstructure. This microstructure is composed of a ferritic matrix and austenite islands, at room temperature, with approximately equal volume fractions of these two phases. As a result, these alloys are often used in pipes and industrial equipment where high resistance / weight ratio is required, especially in offshore assembly and construction field. This work presents a methodology developed with the use of a parameterized numerical model based on the finite element method to analyze the effect of thermal welding cycles on duplex and leanduplex stainless steels. The developed model uses the transient thermal analysis of welding, in which the thermal properties of the materials involved are thermo-dependent, and large thermal gradients are generated between the region of the weld and the areas away from it. Experimental procedures for measuring the thermal cycles employed under certain welding conditions are used to calibrate the numerical model. The methodology is applied to the study of the behavior of a weld in the form of a strand in sheet form containing a single pass, realized with the GMAW process, in flat plates of 10mm thickness of the duplex steels UNS32205 and leanduplex UNS32304, through a finite element model. The results show a good correspondence between the numerical model and the experimental result.

The natural hip joint in healthy people has a very low friction with very little (or no) wear. It works as a dynamically loaded bearing and is subjected to about 1-2 million cycles of loading per year. The applied load is the body weight which is tripled when walking and even higher during other activities such as running and jumping. Unfortunately these joints are not always healthy due to various causes such as fractures or disease leading to severe pain which necessitates joint replacement. Currently, the orthopaedic industries are working towards developing an ideal artificial hip joint with low wear, low friction, good lubrication, better fixation/stability and biocompatibility. Many different designs and materials have been investigated with some promising new implants which can be used depending on patients' individual need (large or small joint), activity and age. In this work, two types of artificial hip joints were tested for friction and lubrication studies: Metal-on-Metal (MoM) Biomet hip resurfacing ReCaps with large diameters (>35-60 mm) and different diametral clearances (~ 60-350 µm), and Zirconia Toughened Alumina (ZTA) heads against carbon-fibre-reinforced poly-ether-ether ketone (CFR PEEK) cups with different diameters (>35-60 mm) and diametral clearances (60-1860 µm). Seven serum-based lubricants with different viscosities were used with and without carboxy methyl cellulose (CMC) additions as gelling agent to increase viscosity depending on the CMC content. The maximum load applied was 2000 N for the stance phase with a minimum load of 100 N for the swing phase. A Pro-Sim friction hip simulator was used to investigate the frictional torque generated between the articulating surfaces so as the friction factor can be calculated. Stribeck analysis was then employed to assess the mode of lubrication. For the metal-on-metal hip resurfacing joints, the friction factors were in the range 0.03-0.151 and those for the ZTA ceramic heads versus CFR PEEK cups were in the range 0.006-0.32. Stribeck analyses showed mainly mixed lubrication for both MoM and ZTA ceramic-on-CFR PEEK joints. The experimental results were in agreement with most of the theoretical calculations suggesting mixed lubricating regimes at low viscosities and moving on to fluid film lubrication at higher viscosities. Joints with larger-diameters, lower clearances and lower surface roughness exhibited a higher lambda ratio suggesting improved lubrication. Viscosity flow curves for the serum-based lubricants having viscosity ≤ 0.00524 Pas showed non-linear relationship between viscosity and shear rate indicating non-Newtonian flow with pseudoplastic or shear-thinning characteristic, i.e. viscosity decreased as shear rate increased up to shear rates of ~ 1000 s⁻¹. However, at shear rates greater than 1000 s⁻¹ Newtonian flow became dominant with almost constant viscosity, i.e. a linear relationship between shear stress and shear rate. On the other hand, viscosity flow curves for the lubricants with viscosity ≥ 0.0128 Pas showed non-Newtonian behaviour up to a shear rate of 3000 s⁻¹ with shear-thinning characteristic.

Total hip joint prostheses made of CoCrMo heads versus ultra high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) cups have a limited lifetime, mainly due to the wear of the UHMWPE cups as a result of high friction between the articulating surfaces leading to osteolysis and implant loosening with revision surgery becoming inevitable in more active patients. Tribology plays an important role in developing the design, minimizing wear and reducing friction of hip joint prostheses in order to improve their long-term performance, with good lubricating properties. Metal-on-metal hip resurfacing prostheses have shown significantly lower wear rates compared with conventional metal-on-polyethylene implants and thus osteolysis is potentially reduced leading to increased lifetime of the prosthesis. Nevertheless, excessive wear of metal-on-metal joints leads to metal ion release, causing pseudo-tumours and osteolysis. An alternative approach to such bearings is the use of newly developed carbon fiber-reinforced poly-ether-ether-ketone (CFR PEEK) acetabular cups articulating against ceramic femoral heads due to their better wear resistance compared to UHMWPE. In this study, therefore, friction and lubrication properties of large diameter, as cast, Co-Cr-Mo metal-on-metal hip resurfacing implants with various diameters and clearances have been investigated and compared to those of the newly developed zirconia toughened alumina (ZTA) ceramic femoral heads articulating against carbon fiber reinforced poly-ether-ether-ketone (CFR PEEK) acetabular cups with different diameters and clearances. Friction hip simulator was used to measure frictional torque and then friction factors were calculated along with Sommerfeld numbers leading to Stribeck analysis and hence the lubricating mode was also investigated. This involved using lubricants based on pure bovine serum (BS) and diluted bovine serum (25 vol. %BS+75 vol. %distilled water) with and without carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) (as gelling agent). Standard Rheometer was used to measure lubricant viscosity ranged from 0.0014 to 0.236 Pas at a shear rate of 3000 . Pure bovine serum, diluted bovine serum without CMC and with CMC (25BS+75DW+0.5gCMC and +1gCMC) showed pseudoplastic flow behaviour up to shear rate of ~139 s⁻¹ above which a Newtonian flow with significant increase in shear stress was observed. The viscosity flow curves for the 25BS+75DW+2gCMC, +3.5gCMC and +5gCMC showed only shear thinning up to a shear rate of 3000 . The shear rate application modified the flow behaviour of bovine serum from a pseudoplastic to a Newtonian flow depending on its purity and CMC content. This will cause a different frictional behaviour depending on joint diameter and clearance, as seen in this work. The experimental data were compared with theoretical iv predictions of the lubricating regimes by calculating theoretical film thickness and lambda ratio. The metal-on-metal Biomet ReCaps showed similar trends of Stribeck curves, i.e. friction factors decreased from ~0.12 to ~0.05 as Sommerfeld numbers increased in the range of viscosities ~0.001-0.04Pas indicating mixed lubrication regimes above which the friction factor increased to ~0.13 at a viscosity of 0.236Pas. The Stribeck analyses suggested mixed lubrication as the dominant mode with the lowest friction factor in the range ~0.09 - ~0.05 at the physiological viscosities of ~0.01 to ~0.04 Pas and that such joints can be used for more active patients as compared to the conventional total hip replacement joints with 28mm diameter. The Stribeck curves for all ZTA ceramic-on-CFR PEEK components illustrated a similar trend with BS fluids showing higher friction factors (in the range 0.22-0.13) than the diluted BS+CMC fluids (in the range 0.24-0.05). The friction tests revealed boundary-mixed lubrication regimes for the ZTA ceramic-on-CFR-PEEK joints. The results, so far, are promising and suggest clearly that the newly developed ZTA ceramic femoral heads articulating against CFR PEEK cups have similar friction and lubrication behaviour at optimum clearances to those of currently used metal-onmetal hip resurfacing implants at the range of viscosities 0.00612 to 0.155Pas. These results clearly suggest that the ZTA ceramic-on-CFR-PEEK joints showed low friction at the physiological viscosities of ~0.01Pas in the range ~0.1-0.05, suggesting that these novel joints may be used as an alternative material choice for the reduction of osteolysis. The result of this investigation has suggested that the optimum clearance for the 52mm diameter MOM Biomet ReCaps could be ~170μm. However, 48 and 54mm joints showed lower friction due to clearances to be >200μm. For the 52mm ZTA ceramic-on-CFR-PEEK joints the optimum clearance seems to be ≥ 630μm radial clearance. These results suggested that increased clearance bearings have the potential to generate low friction and hence no risk of micro- or even macro-motion for the ceramic-on-CFR-PEEK joints. This study found no correlation between theoretical predictions and experimental data for all metal-onmetal and ZTA ceramic-on-CFR PEEK bearings at the physiological viscosity (0.0127Pas). However, at lubricant viscosity of 0.00157Pas, the theoretical prediction of lubrication regime correlated well with the experimental data, both illustrating boundary lubrication. As expected, a decrease in viscosity resulted decrease in the film thickness.

Total hip joint prostheses made of CoCrMo heads versus ultra high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) cups have a limited lifetime, mainly due to the wear of the UHMWPE cups as a result of high friction between the articulating surfaces leading to osteolysis and implant loosening with revision surgery becoming inevitable in more active patients. Tribology plays an important role in developing the design, minimizing wear and reducing friction of hip joint prostheses in order to improve their long-term performance, with good lubricating properties. Metal-on-metal hip resurfacing prostheses have shown significantly lower wear rates compared with conventional metal-on-polyethylene implants and thus osteolysis is potentially reduced leading to increased lifetime of the prosthesis. Nevertheless, excessive wear of metal-on-metal joints leads to metal ion release, causing pseudo-tumours and osteolysis. An alternative approach to such bearings is the use of newly developed carbon fiber-reinforced poly-ether-ether-ketone (CFR PEEK) acetabular cups articulating against ceramic femoral heads due to their better wear resistance compared to UHMWPE. In this study, therefore, friction and lubrication properties of large diameter, as cast, Co-Cr-Mo metal-on-metal hip resurfacing implants with various diameters and clearances have been investigated and compared to those of the newly developed zirconia toughened alumina (ZTA) ceramic femoral heads articulating against carbon fiber reinforced poly-ether-ether-ketone (CFR PEEK) acetabular cups with different diameters and clearances. Friction hip simulator was used to measure frictional torque and then friction factors were calculated along with Sommerfeld numbers leading to Stribeck analysis and hence the lubricating mode was also investigated. This involved using lubricants based on pure bovine serum (BS) and diluted bovine serum (25 vol. %BS+75 vol. %distilled water) with and without carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) (as gelling agent). Standard Rheometer was used to measure lubricant viscosity ranged from 0.0014 to 0.236 Pas at a shear rate of 3000 . Pure bovine serum, diluted bovine serum without CMC and with CMC (25BS+75DW+0.5gCMC and +1gCMC) showed pseudoplastic flow behaviour up to shear rate of ¿139 above which a Newtonian flow with significant increase in shear stress was observed. The viscosity flow curves for the 25BS+75DW+2gCMC, +3.5gCMC and +5gCMC showed only shear thinning up to a shear rate of 3000 . The shear rate application modified the flow behaviour of bovine serum from a pseudoplastic to a Newtonian flow depending on its purity and CMC content. This will cause a different frictional behaviour depending on joint diameter and clearance, as seen in this work. The experimental data were compared with theoretical iv predictions of the lubricating regimes by calculating theoretical film thickness and lambda ratio. The metal-on-metal Biomet ReCaps showed similar trends of Stribeck curves, i.e. friction factors decreased from ~0.12 to ~0.05 as Sommerfeld numbers increased in the range of viscosities ~0.001-0.04Pas indicating mixed lubrication regimes above which the friction factor increased to ~0.13 at a viscosity of 0.236Pas. The Stribeck analyses suggested mixed lubrication as the dominant mode with the lowest friction factor in the range ~0.09 - ~0.05 at the physiological viscosities of ~0.01 to ~0.04 Pas and that such joints can be used for more active patients as compared to the conventional total hip replacement joints with 28mm diameter. The Stribeck curves for all ZTA ceramic-on-CFR PEEK components illustrated a similar trend with BS fluids showing higher friction factors (in the range 0.22-0.13) than the diluted BS+CMC fluids (in the range 0.24-0.05). The friction tests revealed boundary-mixed lubrication regimes for the ZTA ceramic-on-CFR-PEEK joints. The results, so far, are promising and suggest clearly that the newly developed ZTA ceramic femoral heads articulating against CFR PEEK cups have similar friction and lubrication behaviour at optimum clearances to those of currently used metal-onmetal hip resurfacing implants at the range of viscosities 0.00612 to 0.155Pas. These results clearly suggest that the ZTA ceramic-on-CFR-PEEK joints showed low friction at the physiological viscosities of ~0.01Pas in the range ~0.1-0.05, suggesting that these novel joints may be used as an alternative material choice for the reduction of osteolysis. The result of this investigation has suggested that the optimum clearance for the 52mm diameter MOM Biomet ReCaps could be ~170¿m. However, 48 and 54mm joints showed lower friction due to clearances to be >200¿m. For the 52mm ZTA ceramic-on-CFR-PEEK joints the optimum clearance seems to be ¿ 630¿m radial clearance. These results suggested that increased clearance bearings have the potential to generate low friction and hence no risk of micro- or even macro-motion for the ceramic-on-CFR-PEEK joints. This study found no correlation between theoretical predictions and experimental data for all metal-onmetal and ZTA ceramic-on-CFR PEEK bearings at the physiological viscosity (0.0127Pas). However, at lubricant viscosity of 0.00157Pas, the theoretical prediction of lubrication regime correlated well with the experimental data, both illustrating boundary lubrication. As expected, a decrease in viscosity resulted decrease in the film thickness.

The natural hip joint in healthy people has a very low friction with very little (or no) wear. It works as a dynamically loaded bearing and is subjected to about 1-2 million cycles of loading per year. The applied load is the body weight which is tripled when walking and even higher during other activities such as running and jumping. Unfortunately these joints are not always healthy due to various causes such as fractures or disease leading to severe pain which necessitates joint replacement. Currently, the orthopaedic industries are working towards developing an ideal artificial hip joint with low wear, low friction, good lubrication, better fixation/stability and biocompatibility. Many different designs and materials have been investigated with some promising new implants which can be used depending on patients¿ individual need (large or small joint), activity and age. In this work, two types of artificial hip joints were tested for friction and lubrication studies: Metal-on-Metal (MoM) Biomet hip resurfacing ReCaps with large diameters (>35-60 mm) and different diametral clearances (~ 60-350 µm), and Zirconia Toughened Alumina (ZTA) heads against carbon-fibre-reinforced poly-ether-ether ketone (CFR PEEK) cups with different diameters (>35-60 mm) and diametral clearances (60-1860 µm). Seven serum-based lubricants with different viscosities were used with and without carboxy methyl cellulose (CMC) additions as gelling agent to increase viscosity depending on the CMC content. The maximum load applied was 2000 N for the stance phase with a minimum load of 100 N for the swing phase. A Pro-Sim friction hip simulator was used to investigate the frictional torque generated between the articulating surfaces so as the friction factor can be calculated. Stribeck analysis was then employed to assess the mode of lubrication. For the metal-on-metal hip resurfacing joints, the friction factors were in the range 0.03-0.151 and those for the ZTA ceramic heads versus CFR PEEK cups were in the range 0.006-0.32. Stribeck analyses showed mainly mixed lubrication for both MoM and ZTA ceramic-on-CFR PEEK joints. The experimental results were in agreement with most of the theoretical calculations suggesting mixed lubricating regimes at low viscosities and moving on to fluid film lubrication at higher viscosities. Joints with larger-diameters, lower clearances and lower surface roughness exhibited a higher lambda ratio suggesting improved lubrication. Viscosity flow curves for the serum-based lubricants having viscosity ¿ 0.00524 Pas showed non-linear relationship between viscosity and shear rate indicating non-Newtonian flow with pseudoplastic or shear-thinning characteristic, i.e. viscosity decreased as shear rate increased up to shear rates of ~ 1000 s-1. However, at shear rates greater than 1000 s-1 Newtonian flow became dominant with almost constant viscosity, i.e. a linear relationship between shear stress and shear rate. On the other hand, viscosity flow curves for the lubricants with viscosity ¿ 0.0128 Pas showed non-Newtonian behaviour up to a shear rate of 3000 s-1 with shear-thinning characteristic. / Ministry of Higher Education, Libya