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Ash'arite theology in and after the 7th/13 th century has received little attention in studies of Islamic theology and philosophy. Works like the commentary of the Moroccan ṣufi Aḥmad Zarruq (d. 899/1493) on the creed found in the Iḥya' 'ulum al-din of Abu Ḥadmid al-Ghazali (d. 505/1111) are unknown to historians of Sunni theology. A close analysis of the sources used by Zarruq in his commentary reveals a unique concern with mystical as well as theological subjects. As a result, Zarruq displays an anachronistic preference for early Ash'arite themes while also shying away from involved philosophical discussion which typifies later Ash'arite kalam. Nevertheless, Zarruq's commentary does demonstrate the challenges posed by the two drastically different faces of Ash'arism and how each individual scholar, based on his particular interests and concerns, chose to harmonize these discordant sources.

Jalal-e Al-e Ahmad in his writings raised three issues as being the problematic areas in modern social life in Iran: the identity of the individual Iranian, the need for modernity and national independence, the need to fight against dictatorship. Culture and religion, according to him, are inseparable in the definition of being an Iranian. It is possible to face the external enemy, only when the convergence of tradition and modernity takes place. The intellectuals, according to him, are the prophets of the modern age who have to call upon the Rowhaniyat, to make a coalition against the authocratic state and in favor of emancipation of the masses from their illusion which is caused by the impact of the West on Iran. Thus, according to him, any politico-cultural frontier has to merge with tradition. The representatives of tradition, Rowhaniyat, are the corner stones to any social reform in Iran. According to him it is only through the unity between the intellectuals and the Rowhaniyat that the real unity of the country is possible.

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This thesis is an attempt to study the role of Ahmad Surkati in al-Ishrad movement in Java and its implications for the Arab community in Indonesia.

This thesis examines the political thought of Dr. Israr Ahmad and the organizations founded and led by him, namely, Markazi Anjuman-i Khuddam al-Qur'an, Tanzim-i Islami, and Tahrik-i Khilafat. He is an intellectual and reformer born in the Indian subcontinent who witnessed the struggle for independence and migrated to Pakistan. During his medical studies he was a member of the Jam'iyat-i Talabah, and after becoming a doctor, he joined the Jama'at-i Islami formed by Mawlana Mawdudi but later left it. The objectives of this thesis are to analyze the main influences on him. This study focuses particularly on Dr. Israr Ahmad's contribution to political thought, that is, his derivation of the process of Islamic Revolution from the sirah, and his modification of this process to suit the present times. He has not only articulated and communicated his thought widely but also formed three organizations to implement the process in Pakistan. The aims, modes of operation, and achievements of the Anjuman and Tanzim are discussed and compared with the Jama'at-i Islami at times. Since Tahrik-i Khilafat is a recent addition, it is discussed only briefly.

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