This research explores the question of how best to remediate the math skills of adult college students. Two bodies of literature relating to adults and poor mathematical performance are reviewed, and a summary of one of the most influential theories of learning is presented. First, the literature on adult learners is reviewed to gain insight into characteristics of and assumptions about adult learners. The second body of literature explores psychological factors contributing to poor mathematical learning. Research on math anxiety, math avoidance, and women and math is reviewed, along with research on interventions implemented by colleges to help students overcome negative feelings about their ability to learn math. The third summarizes Jean Piaget's theory of intellectual development and its relevance to adult learners. In-depth interviews were conducted with nine "good" college instructors who teach developmental mathematics to both traditional and non-traditional undergraduates. The teachers were asked to talk about their experiences learning math, their teaching philosophies and methods, and their observations about adult mathematics students. Students in the instructors' current classes answered open-ended questions in an anonymous written survey. The surveys asked students to describe their instructor's teaching methods, their feelings about learning math since being in the class, and their beliefs about the role age plays in ability to learn math. The responses of the teachers and students indicate that (1) cognitive ability to do math does not change with age, (2) ability to learn basic math depends on two main factors: motivation and having a "good" teacher and, (3) good college remedial mathematics teachers are non-threatening; use a student-centered, active learning approach; stress understanding over memorization and rote computations; and focus on developing reasoning, problem solving and higher order thinking skills. The conclusion of the dissertation is that a Piagetian approach to teaching basic math is as applicable to older students as it is to younger learners, but that more research is needed to determine the ways in which differences, other than cognitive, between age groups can help or hinder mathematics learning.

Returning or reentry students represent an increasingly large percentage of the student population in higher education. Many of them not only manage to stay in school, but also appear to make significant strides in cognitive and affective development. Relatively few works have dealt with developmental issues of adult or returning students, and most have focused primarily on women, who constitute the majority of returning students. This study examines the effect of higher education on adult male returning students. It focuses on the possibility that by returning to school, men may transform what Mezirow (1989) calls "previously held meaning perspectives." It also attempts to determine to what extent, if any, a given sample of adult males have learned to become more critical about previously held views, and what the implications are for the way they choose to live in the world. The study draws on theories of adult development and transformative learning with emphasis on the transformative learning theory of Jack Mezirow (1989, 1991). The methodology for this study is qualitative. Six men in their second year at a Massachusetts community college were interviewed individually and asked questions pertaining to their view of themselves and the world prior to entering college and then afterwards. A focus group was held afterwards. The data was then analyzed in light of the theories examined in the study. The findings indicate that the experience at the college enabled the men to make marked changes within both the affective and cognitive domains. Viewed as part of an ongoing process, their perspectives on education, themselves and the world were transformed. This transformation also carried over to their relationships with family and friends. The men learned to acknowledge weaknesses and to ask for assistance from instructors and academic support personnel. Eventually, they learned how to connect to students and staff across age and gender lines. The men were able to confront challenges presented by difficult subjects. They came to see knowledge as being socially constructed and subject to change. They also developed a better understanding for the causes of individual and social change.

Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITS) can provide individualized instruction in problem-solving skills, a kind of instruction that until recently only humans could perform. While ITS have been an active area of research for nearly twenty-five years and researchers have convincingly demonstrated that ITS can instruct in various ways, few ITS are in actual use and their potential benefit to learners is unrealized. This research is predicated on the notion that ITS research has three closely related but distinct foci: artificial intelligence research in tutoring, instructional research in tutoring, and research on practical tutoring; and on the notion that investigation and evaluation in the latter two areas has been lacking. With respect to instructional research in tutoring, this work examines the extent to which conventional instructional design theory can usefully inform the design of intelligent tutors, the means of incorporating instructional methods into an intelligent tutor, and the range of instructional skills necessary in a practical intelligent tutor. It examines how ITSs push instructional design theory in the area of computational instructional design and presents a new instructional method: Focused Practice. Evaluation of tutoring skills focused on trainees' usage of the tutor and the resulting learning, and on measuring the extent to which the tutor was capable of individualizing instruction. With respect to research on practical tutoring, this work examines the extent to which it is feasible to simulate a work environment, represent the expertise of a non-formal domain, construct a large knowledge base, build a functional student model, supply a shell and authoring tools, incorporate a variety of instructional skills, instructional activities, and instructional materials into a cohesive tutoring package that integrates well into a training program; and gain support from the variety of stakeholders affected by the tutor. Evaluation of practicality focused on trainees' and instructors' affective responses toward the tutor, their perceptions of usability and instructional value; and on other stakeholders' (instructional designers, managers from research, production and training) perceptions of value.

This study examines the future role of the NGO movement in social transformation in Indonesia. Social transformation is a process of social change toward the creation of fundamentally new and better economic, political, cultural, and environmental relationships. This study examines three main issues: the nature of ideology, visions, and paradigms of an NGO movement as part of social change; the internal and external factors that prevent an NGO movement from performing a role in social transformation; and, the future agenda and plan of action for social transformation in Indonesia. The study was conducted by a team of NGO activists employing a participatory research approach. This approach is a combination of research, education, dialogue and action. In this approach, NGO activists are placed at the center and are the subjects rather than objects of the research. This study describes a research process that consists of a variety of activities including field interviews, education, social analysis, dialogue and plans for action. The first and second part of the study is a literature review of the theoretical underpinnings of social movement organizations. After reviewing various theories on social movements and social change from the perspective of dominant social sciences and traditional Marxism, the study chose a non-reductionist approach, namely, a Gramscian approach to social movements, particularly in terms of Gramsci's concepts of the organic intellectual, state and civil society, and hegemony. The third and fourth part of the study critically examine the political, economic, cultural and social settings of the present social formation in Indonesia where this study was conducted, revealing the prevailing ideology and paradigm--called Developmentalism, the mask of Third World capitalism. Chapter five and six describe the process of the participatory research. This is a collaborative process of research and analysis of NGO activists' ideology and vision in social change. This effort led to the construction of a critical map of ideological positions and paradigms of Indonesian NGO activists in terms of their perceptions and goals for social change. In return, it raised the critical consciousness of the activists in examining existing roles, biases, visions, paradigms, theories, methodologies and practices. The process of the research also succeeded in developing a concrete agenda for change and a plan of action. The last part of this study includes two chapters, both a conclusion and a reflection on the part of the author about the research process, methodology, and future research. The personal reflection represents accumulated thoughts and expressions gathered throughout the entire process. It accommodates elements of criticism, disappointment, expectation, hope, and recommendation. It is a reflection and expression on the author's role in the process of creating a fundamentally new and better world.

Many adult literacy and adult basic education learners struggle with various forms of negative emotions. Self-doubts are often a result of resistance to earlier schooling experiences and how they processed those experiences. Adults need to shed emotions that interfere with progress and develop the self-confidence needed to persist with academic work. There is a need for a strategy to help learners become more self-confident, persistent, and self-directed. The purpose of this study was to develop, pre-test, field-test, post-test, and refine a training program designed to help students move closer to self-directed learning. The data was collected through formative and summative evaluation strategies that revolved around a series of critical dialogues with learners. Findings related to the unlearning process revealed movement by the participants towards several enabling outcomes. These outcomes included unlearning the "blaming-the-victim" mentality; working through the shame issue of returning to school as an adult; resisting the self-fulfilling prophecy that they are incapable of academic work; giving themselves credit for overcoming barriers; and moving towards developing a stronger sense of critical awareness. This study also found that: (1) learners can benefit from reflecting on their earlier schooling experiences and surrounding circumstances; (2) learners want their critical voices heard; and (3) critical reflection and critical pedagogy are important processes in helping learners overcome negative emotions and getting at those voices. In conducting the evaluation, several problems in the design were easily rectified, but others were left unsolved. Empowerment and participatory practices are not easy, and program staff may find some of the results too critical, difficult to deal with, and unpleasant. What characteristics make for a good facilitator? Should a practitioner from the learning center be present during the critical dialogues? The participants not only endorsed the program, but had recommendations for practitioners who might consider participating in a similar program designed specifically for them.

Anger almost inevitably comes up in classes on sexism. Whether it explodes and demands attention or remains largely hidden, it can impede or facilitate the learning experience. Research suggests that men and women may experience, express, and react to anger differently. Because this difference tends to reflect the power imbalance in society, it is all the more important to understand how instructors should manage anger in the classroom. To this end, a number of questions were raised: (1) What kinds of anger come up in a class on sexism, and are there observable differences based on gender? (2) What kinds of anger do male and female students report experiencing in the class and how does the anger facilitate or impede their learning? (3) How do instructors experience and deal with anger in the classroom and what do they conclude from their teaching experience? (4) How can teachers help make anger a constructive experience for women learning about sexism? (5) Does anger tie in with sexism, especially for women? Answers to these questions are based on a qualitative study of two mixed-gender classes on sexism. Research methodology includes observation of the classes, analysis of student evaluations and papers on their learning experience, journals recording emotional reactions during class, and audio-taped interviews. Both defensive and facilitative anger came up in these classes, and even more anger was reported later that had remained unobserved. Anger was caused by factors ranging from personal biases to pedagogical approaches. There was widespread antipathy toward angry women unless their anger was protective of men. Women seemed to have difficulty becoming angry on their own behalf or expressing it in class. In general, women were more adversely affected by conflict and displays of male anger. Results imply that women's new awareness of sexism should include an ability to become angry on their own behalf. Instructors are therefore advised to keep male anger contained by emphasizing collaborative, small group discussions and single-sex caucuses, and to focus attention on the interactive process where both anger and sexism are taking place.

Participation in community development work has been emphasized since the late 1960's; Participatory Evaluation (PE), however, was not introduced until the mid-1970's. At about that same time, Participatory Research (PR) was seeking to help shift the ownership and control of community development work and social research back into the hands of the local community. One important contribution of PR, has been the recognition of the importance of indigenous knowledge. As indigenous knowledge and indigenous practices were being recovered by communities during PR, it soon became evident that the Western model of development--and its emphasis on the transfer of Western technological knowledge--was often insufficient, inappropriate, or culturally unacceptable. Although evaluation practitioners increased the participation of the local community in the evaluation of its own development work, PE was often limited to "participation-in-evaluation" (PiE). The ownership and control of the evaluation process often stayed within the hands of the evaluation "experts" often using Western evaluation methods. The first part of the study examines the emergence and evolution of PE in community development work during the past three decades. The study then explores the indigenous evaluation practices of the Gbaya people of western Central African Republic, where the researcher has lived and worked with health and community development since 1982. Ethnographic interviewing of key informants explored the following questions: What are the indigenous evaluation practices of the Gbaya? How is information gathered and used? Who can be involved in decision-making, in what contexts? The study further investigates Gbaya forms of evaluation through the participant observation of the participatory evaluation of a Lutheran church-sponsored development program in western Central African Republic. A framework for better understanding PE, including the factors of "power", "facilitation methods", and "previous training and experience", are also presented. Using criteria from the framework, the following sub-categories of PE are offered: Participation-in-Evaluation (PiE), Less Participatory Evaluation (LPE), and Highly Participatory Evaluation (HiPE). Finally, a "Gbaya Way of Decision-making" is presented as one model of indigenous evaluation. This is followed by recommendations to practitioners of PE, as well as recommendations for the further research of Indigenous Evaluation.

By examining background material on older women admitted in the mid-'80s to a highly selective college for women, this study attempts to sort out and explore answers to three questions: (1) Could one have predicted from the high school profiles that these women could and would become such high achievers? (2) What are the psychosocial factors that interfere with a woman's epistemological (cognitive) development and prevent her from achieving in high school when she is capable of doing so? (3) What factors contribute to a women's resilience and motivation to change her life and return to education? The study reviews research about women's: education, motivation for returning to college, development, transitions, resilience, and non-traditional admission criteria. The study investigates both quantitative and qualitative aspects of an Ada Comstock Scholars cohort at Smith College. The quantitative analysis compares the Ada cohort with a sample of traditional students who were graduating at the same time and documents the excellent success rate of the non-traditional cohort. The qualitative section identifies common themes among applicants' autobiographies, such as writing skills, ability for self-reflection, academic support, motivation, non-academic achievement, self-esteem, and evidence of a turning point (epiphany) in their lives. This set of findings leads to discoveries about the weakness of relying on traditional criteria and stresses the importance of developing non-traditional measures that are valid predictors of success for women returning to education.

Adult literacy has become more important today. Nearly half of the millions who lack a high school education are non-English speaking adults in urban communities. Understanding the problems these adults confront in learning English is crucial to providing quality literacy services. Adult learners come to the learning tasks with fully developed cognitive capacity and life experiences. Learners' perception of the learning task affects the teaching and learning process. Despite many studies in L2 acquisition, very little is known about how adult L2 learners think about the process, particularly learners at the low literacy levels. In an attempt to find some commonality among Chinese adult ESOL learners, a survey was conducted in an urban community school. The study examined the perceptions of Chinese adult learners on the key issue in L2 learning, namely, L1 influence in learning L2 literacy skills. The study found that adult Chinese learners perceived L1 influence in learning English. Learners indicated positive L1 influence in some categories, but perceived significant negative L1 influence in more categories. Learners explained their perceptions in terms of similarities and differences between Chinese and English, the existence and non-existence of certain features in Chinese, their L1 learning experience and their learning philosophy. Their explanations also show different learner strategies and reflect the form of L1 education learners received. Learners also indicated preferred instructional approaches in their responses to the open-ended question. It is also indicated that learners perceive more L1 influence in superasegmental structures than in the segmental elements of the L2, even in places where L1 clearly affects the learning of the L2 segments. Among the four basic literacy skills, learning to speak English is the most difficult task as perceived by the Chinese adult learners. Listening is very difficult for most of the respondents. Writing is difficult for a significant number of learners while reading is perceived the least difficult by all learners. Areas for future research were pointed out. It is hoped that data from this study will serve as baseline information for future practitioner research in the adult literacy field.

This study examines how civilian workers managed stress at Fort Devens, Massachusetts, after the 1991 Base Closure and Realignment Commission (BRAC) selected the post for closure. The post shut down operations in September 1995, two years ahead of the schedule mandated by related legislation. After the closure announcement in April 1991, a number of events further compounded the problem of base closure. First, there was a deep recession in New England. Second, general downsizing of the federal government and of the Department of Defense, in particular, severely decreased potential job opportunities for many workers. These events created a climate of stress at Fort Devens. At the same time closure was announced, Fort Devens made available to all civilian employees the opportunity to attend a lifestyle management course called Fit to Win, the purpose of which was not stress management but better fitness through exercise and proper nutrition. This study examines how employees coped with the stress of losing their jobs at Fort Devens, and to what degree the Fit to Win program was an effective tool in helping them manage their stress. Qualitative research methods were used. A case study with in-depth interviewing was the primary mode of inquiry. The study was composed of a purposeful sample of six civilian Fort Devens employees who also attended the Fit to Win course of instruction. In addition to taped and transcribed interviews, an interviewer's journal was also used to conduct the research. The findings suggest that Fit to Win is an effective lifestyle management program. All of the participants thought the course content was sound and the results were worthwhile. Those individuals who fully engaged in the program, theoretically and in application, reaped the greatest rewards. The findings also suggest that Fit to Win has varied impact on participants: temporary, permanent, and no change. Additionally, the findings suggest that a lifestyle management program comprised of exercise and nutritional guidance can effectively help individuals to cope with stress. Furthermore, the findings suggest that Fit to Win education can be a vehicle for successful transition from stress management to lifestyle management, or improved wellness.