Environmental perception data contributes significantly to planning and design decisions. This research samples a broad range of environmental perception variables that explore the cognitive, affective and behavioral dimensions of human relationships to the environment. These relationships are held in the mind and are reflected by evolving knowledge, attitudes, fears and expectations. Although mental images and response to the environment vary among individuals, a distinctive local character may be discerned. The goal of this research is to analyze environmental perceptions and behavior in order to identify planning and design considerations to aid regional hydro-electric development. Three critical microwatersheds of the Guanare-Masparro hydro-electric project in the Venezuelan Andes were selected as test sites. A random sampling of dwellings yielded 318 interviews. The survey instrument was administered by a team of six trained Venezuelan forestry students and the project director. Survey information was organized into the following nine categories of variables: demographic, economic, agricultural economic, agricultural, agricultural knowledge and perception, environmental knowledge and behavior, environmental perception, social and psycho-cultural. Analysis of the data focuses on four main research issues: (1) a self-defined needs analysis of inhabitants which reveals expectations for development; (2) environmental perception data concerning fauna, forest, soils, climate, and water; (3) the interrelationship of environmental quality perception and objectively measured environmental conditions; and (4) development and educational guidelines that incorporate the needs and perception of learners.

The purpose of this dissertation is twofold. First, it seeks to substantiate the inclusion of spiritual ideals within the planning and development of non-formal education programs. As such, the review of the literature will also develop a rationale. This rationale is a philosophical and historical investigation of the central premises of formal education and the development of an alternative philosophical foundation more relevant to the problems of rural development. It proposes that the central dilemma of the modern epoch is a confusion of first principles; that human affairs and the systems designed to serve them have been impoverished by the wholesale application of a reductionist paradigm. This paradigm works extremely well for the physical sciences, but is wholly inadequate when applied to human affairs. The humanitarian ideal as enunciated by Socrates and Plato is suggested as a much more appropriate paradigm for human service systems. The second purpose of the dissertation is the development of some initial educational materials and strategies that could symbolize spiritual concepts in a way which would permit dialogue with a non-literate population. A developmental project operationalizing the theoretical premises outlined in the rationale is initiated. This project involves the selection of a rural, non-literate population and develops symbolical vehicles and educational strategies designed to disseminate these concepts to this population. This will primarily involve the development of a booklet of visual analogies. The target populations are selected communities in South Carolina and Georgia comprised of members of the Baha'(')i Faith, a worldwide, independent religion. The planned methodology is described in Chapter III. However, what emerges from the project's development is something quite different from what was anticipated at the outset. The "emergent outcomes" enable the author to critique the value of empirical models of evaluation within non-formal settings. This critique and the results of the evaluation are contained within Chapter V. The dissertation concludes by suggesting possible approaches to evaluation and program structure which are more consonant with the philosophical premises enshrined in the humanitarian ideal.

This study describes an effective work/study educational model that was conducted by one urban school. This historical study is an effort to develop a framework and a process by which an effective educational option, The Boston High Program, could be regenerated and implemented within urban high schools and in the Boston Public Schools. This program was a viable approach as an intervention program for at-risk pupils. Explicitly, this study attempted to posit the notion that alternative work/study programs are working and present a viable means of strategy for at-risk prevention and intervention. Though programs that this study examined have been labeled differently and suggest some variations in structure and format, this research argues that work/study alternatives are useful and adaptable to urban high schools. Alternative work/study programs however, cannot be perceived to be a panacea for the at-risk pupil problem. The need for alternative work/study programs in urban schools exists because of the high dropout rates and the lack of prevention and crisis intervention programs. Findings of this historical account of Boston High concluded five factors that were necessary for a successful work/study program for at-risk students. These are: (1) An effective alternative work/study program must have dedicated, kind, caring professional leadership and staff. (2) The work/study component must offer career level positions, not entry level. (3) The work/study curriculum must be the collaborate effort of the private industry, the community, the mayor and the social leaders of the community. (4) The alternative program must work to restore the at-risk student's self-esteem through achievement and the work experience. (5) A successful work/study program for at-risk students must be able to retain and graduate its students. An elaboration of these factors using supportive data form the basis of this dissertation study. (Abstract shortened with permission of author.)

The purpose of this study was to describe and analyze the process of networking in two intentionally created social networks. It sought to describe the core characteristics associated with networking and analyze how networking functions as a social resource generation strategy for adults dealing with personal growth and/or social change. This study utilized a transformational frame of reference to focus the investigation. The literature suggests that transformationalists view networking as an action oriented change strategy which can be used to accomplish an array of personal and group goals. A theoretical rationale was presented to support the assumption that networks and networking are effective vehicles for personal and social transformation. It asserted that networks and networking emerge out of and are a reflection of a new paradigm or worldview. It demonstrated that the characteristics of networks and networking are a manifestation of the propositions inherent in the new paradigm and therefore can be appropriately viewed as vehicles for personal and social transformation. Qualitative research theories and methods were used to conduct two case studies of social networks which were intentionally created to assist adults dealing with some aspect of personal growth and/or social change. The findings indicated that networking can be typified by three core characteristics: connectedness, communication, and cooperation. Networking, in these settings, served four fundamental functions. It provided access to information and potential sources of power and influence, promoted psychological support, provided assistance with problem solving, and enhanced community effectiveness. A comparison of the findings from each of the cases also indicated important differences in the characterization and functions of networking between the two settings. One of the conclusions drawn from this study is that while generic characteristics and potential functions are identified, how and to what extent they became operationalized were effected by various contextual factors, most notably the purpose and structure of the network.

Current efforts to expand adult literacy services in the United States too often merely replicate past ineffective practices and fail to make use of alternative instructional and management approaches available to them. Learner participation practices are one such potentially useful tool. In them, learners are intentionally encouraged to take greater control of responsibility in the running of program activities. Not enough is known at present about the purposes, origins, forms, users, supportive or hindering factors, and outcomes of these practices as they have been developed to date. While there is evidence that the field has a growing interest in participatory approaches, only limited information and analysis have been developed to guide those hoping to improve and expand the use of these practices. To begin to fill in these gaps in knowledge, this study initially reviews the literature on participation and discusses three purposes for active learner participation: "efficiency," "personal development," and "social change." It then presents the results of a national survey of participatory practices in the instructional and management components of U.S. literacy programs. In instruction, learners are in some cases actively involved in planning, evaluation, peer-teaching, writing and reading practices, field trips, and artistic activities. In management, learners are taking leadership roles in public awareness and advocacy, governance, learner recruitment and intake, mutual support, conferences, community development, program staffing, income generation, and staff recruitment and training. Built on documents and interviews, the survey reveals that this interest is evident across the field, particularly within community based and volunteer programs. Next, intensive case studies describe participatory activities in two volunteer programs, two minority-language programs, and two programs for low-income women. These cases and the national survey provide the basis for an analysis of the origins, limitations, strengths, and critical conditions related to participatory efforts. Finally, the study recommends actions aimed at improving and expanding the use of these practices. These actions include building a deeper understanding of participatory literacy education, research and training, and expansion of the material and human resources needed to make these practices work.

This paper examines the integration of nonformal and formal education at the level of higher education, specifically for the training of nonformal education fieldworkers. Several patterns of possible linkages between these two educational spheres are defined and described. These patterns explain strategies ranging from programs centrally planned to rural level university programs. From this overview of linkages, seven conditions favorable for the development of integrative linkages are identified. An in depth study of a formal-nonformal integrated program in Indonesia is presented. Underlying this program are linkages between teacher training institutes and a government community education organization for the traning of nonformal education fieldworkers. Central to the program is a one-year diploma course in nonformal education. This paper examines the balance and merger of practice and theory in the curriculum, describes the field practicum, and evaluates staff development workshops and administrative relationships between these two educational organizations. The outcome of the study is an analytical framework that intersects the conditions favorable for integrative linkages with input and design factors. The framework provides a check list of program areas where integrative development might occur. Educational program planners can use the analytical framework as a tool to help design, examine, evaluate and transform programs that involve linkages between formal and nonformal education. In conclusion, nonformal education, while more reflective of community participation and needs, has neither gained the institutional stability nor credibility of formal education. Moreover, nonformal education fieldworkers have usually been poorly qualified and/or transient. More expensive and in greater social demand, formal education takes up the major portion of most developing countries' budgets. This study advocates that educational planners look towards the integration of nonformal and formal education at the level of higher education in the hopes of minimizing the weaknesses inherent in their separateness and capitalizing on the potential strengths of integration.

This explorative study sought to examine the educational experiences of older adults (from 60 to 80) who were participating in adult education programs. The study used a phenomenological model; three in-depth interviews explored the motivation, experience and meaning of late life participation in educational programs. Informed by psychosocial developmental theory, the study emphasized the task of life review within the last stage of adult development. The study found that in a small sample of ethnically diverse older adults personal motivation, experience, and meaning of adult education exhibited themes related to continuing early life constructs such as social class identity, family goals and early educational experiences. Hence, motivations for formal learning at this point in life were related to individual personal constructs; in several participants these included the phenomenon of life review. Many of the older adults returned to school to complete life goals which had not been satisfied at younger ages, others wanted to "compete" with younger versions of themselves, to prove that they were still capable of learning, to make clearer their own personal histories, or to find contributory outlets. Individual motivational themes were reflected in the participants' experience of adult education and in the personal and historical meanings they made of it. The study presents in detail the stories of six participants and attempts to tie together their motivation, experience and meaning within the larger population and within a psychosocial developmental framework. Implications for education are explored.

This paper examines planning considerations for universities' participation in nonformal education. The main purpose of the study is to help guide the policy-makers and planners in Korea who are engaged in the formulation of strategies which will lead to a greater involvement of Korean universities in nonformal education. This involvement is in keeping with the full intention of promoting nonformal and lifelong education in Korean society under the provisions of the new constitution as revised in 1980. The methodological approach combines a critical survey of literature, of three case studies and an analytical survey of needs assessments. The survey of literature incorporates a comprehensive review of educational dilemmas in the world context, the potentials of non-formal education in promoting people's lifelong learning, and the roles and values of higher education in the world as well as the Korean context. The case studies highlight the models appropriate for adoption within the Korean higher education system in order to maximize Korean universities' involvement in nonformal education. The survey of needs analysis, which is the most central aspect of this study, was designed for utilizing ideas and issues related to Korean universities' participation in nonformal education as major needs components for the formulation of the Nonformal Education Act. The several data gathering approaches suggest these major recommendations for increasing coordination between the Korean universities' and the nonformal education's efforts: establish a system for preparing specialists in nonformal education in universities; arrange for university representation in national nonformal education policy bodies; provide financial support to universities for nonformal education efforts; and increase the effective dissemination of university findings concerning nonformal education. This study supports the thesis that the tensions between formal and nonformal education in Korea can be a creative source of energy and ideas, building on the strengths of both systems.

Contemporary assessments of management training efforts have generally found such efforts to be wanting, in failing to inculcate enduring changes in skills and capacities. Simultaneously, a variety of management theorists have pointed in the direction of cognitive complexity, sometimes described as "complicated understanding", as the key quality for successful managers. This study is concerned with the contribution that an explicitly developmental perspective can make to a better understanding of the dynamics of managing in an organizational setting. It draws on research conducted over the last two decades by a small group of researchers interested in the nexus of developmental psychology and management and aims to lend additional empirical support to those efforts. This study focuses on the work of developmental psychologist Robert Kegan, who has constructed a theory of stage-related progressions in the development of the self and personal meaning-making over the life course. Kegan's notion that our culture makes mental demands on us that can be understood in stage terms is applied here to the domain of management. The purpose was to explore the possible connections between essential managerial skills and the properties of developmental stages. Sixteen (16) managers in a mid-sized state agency formed the research sample. Each subject was assessed for both developmental stage and managerial stage. The results reported here suggest a strong correlation between stage-functioning and management style. The implications for further theory building and organizational reform in the service of fostering managerial success are discussed in detail.

In 1989, the City of Pittsfield implemented an entrepreneurial education program for the unemployed using federal funding. This study describes the evolution of the educational program and identifies key elements in the entrepreneurial education process. The literature review sets the context of the case study in the new, burgeoning field of entrepreneurial education. The lack of consensus on a definition and the "idiosyncratic" nature of entrepreneurship creates a fluid, volatile climate for this case study. The case study responds to the call for research in the field by providing a seven year in depth analysis of the results of an entrepreneurial educational program for the unemployed. A personal, narrative case study approach reflected my role as a participant/observer and included participant and staff responses. Data analysis also included document review and participant surveys. The key elements that emerged in this case study were: (1) issues of unemployment needed to be addressed in the curriculum design; (2) adult learning strategies provided methodologies that addressed those issues; (3) a staff composed of present or former business owners provided the necessary practical, relevant orientation; (4) networking skills were enhanced by interaction with peers; (5) continual feedback from participants provided essential guidance for curriculum development; and (6) beneficial results beyond business starts need to be included in assessments of entrepreneurial training programs. The case study reports that 264 of the 428 participants included in the study started businesses and almost all of the others secured employment or went on for other training. This study concludes with recommendations for support of future entrepreneurial educational programs for the unemployed as a way to create a climate for small business development in turbulent, changing economies.