This research utilized a 1994 study administered by Marilyn Kern-Foxworth, et al. that examined the roles and status of black women in public relations, using individual and organizational discriminates.A survey of 46 questions was administered to 58 women over a seven-week period. The results offered the current profile of a black female practitioner, and suggested that both her role and status are closer to that of communication technician (low-level management) than to expert prescriber (high-level management).The study offered data not included in the original research, such as practitioner salary, region of practice, and professional affiliation. / Department of Journalism

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Historically, Black women‘s workplace experiences have been understudied, partially due to an implicit assumption that their experiences are subsumed by research on Black men and/or White women. This oversight is even more evident in the field of management. However, considerable attention has been given to the debate about whether Black women are at a double advantage (i.e., as supposed affirmative action ―two-for-one bargains‖) or at a double disadvantage due to their double marginalizing characteristics. Empirical research in the area has found support for each side, furthering the debate, but also advancing an overly simplistic explanation for a set of experiences that is certainly much more complicated. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the conditions under which Black women, when seeking managerial employment, are at a double advantage or disadvantage, using Critical Race Feminism, Cox‘s Interactional Model of Cultural Diversity (IMCD; 1994), and theories of social categorization as the theoretical foundation. A 2 (sex) x 2 (race) x 2 (demographic composition of the workplace) betweensubjects design was used to test the hypotheses that the Black female applicant would have a double disadvantage in a more demographically balanced organization and double advantage in an organization that is more White and male. Participants (N = 361) reviewed information about an organization (where demographic composition was manipulated) and three available management positions. They also reviewed a fictional professional networking profile of a job applicant where race and sex were manipulated iv through photos, and job qualifications and experience were held constant. Based on all of the information, they rated the applicant on his/her suitability for the jobs. Results of planned contrasts and ANOVAs showed partial support for the hypotheses. In the balanced organization, the Black female applicant was rated lower in suitability for entry-level management than the Black male and White female applicants. Likewise, she was rated higher than the Black male and White female applicants in the less diverse organization, when evaluated for upper-level management. Thus, the study clarifies the theories of double advantage and double disadvantage by identifying organizational composition as a moderator of the relationship between applicant race/sex and employment outcomes (i.e., management suitability ratings). The implications of these findings are discussed.

The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship of marital equity and sex role identity to the career commitment of black dual-career wives and to determine who does what in the family. Five research questions guided the study: a) What is the relationship of selected demographic variables (education, income, age and number of children) of husbands and wives to the career commitment of the wife? b) Is there a significant difference between husbands and wives and their commitment to pursue a career? c) Is there a Significant difference between husbands and wives in sex role identity and marital equity? d) Is there a correlation between the career commitment of wives and the extent to which marital equity exists? e) What is the relationship of sex role identity of husbands and wives to the career commitment of the wife? A sample of 200 dual-career couples were systematically selected from a predominantly Black sorority. The instruments used to collect the data were: Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI), career commitment and marital equity scales (Nicola, 1980), and a demographic questionnaire. Data were analyzed using frequencies, means, percentages, correlation coefficients, analysis of variance, t-tests, and multiple comparisons. Study results indicated that while the couples' education and income were not significantly associated with the wife’s career commitment, wives were more educated. Although the number of children did not matter, the age of the oldest child was Significantly related to the mother's career commitment. The mean career commitment scores for husbands (41.03) and wives (41.61) indicated that partners shared similar attitudes about time and emotional investment in careers and family pursuits. Mean marital equity scores for husbands and wives revealed that wives did significantly more than husbands in the areas of household tasks and child care. Similarly, wives did most of the initiation for family communication and problem solving. Data supported equal sharing in decision-making (eg. vacations, relocation, financial matters). While couples' sex role identity scores were significantly different, they had no significant effect on the wife's career commitment. / Ed. D.

There are various factors effecting females' wage level such as marital status, occupation, education, and experience. This paper also includes firm size and answers the questions: What effect does firm size have on female earnings? Is that effect different for black than white females?