Magister Scientiae (Biodiversity and Conservation Biology) / This study aimed to determine the nutrient content (Co, Cr, F, I, Se and V) of various vegetable based food items collected from the Cape Town area in the Western Cape Province of South Africa. This was done to determine which vegetable crops provided the highest concentrations of essential trace elements, and how much they contribute to the daily recommended intake (DRIs) of these trace elements. It also aimed to assess the effects of the addition of the trace elements (Co, Cr, F, I, Se, Si, Sn and V) on seed germination and root growth under controlled conditions in order to calculate their phytotoxicity, and then to biofortify four vegetable crop species, grown in sand culture, with a composite treatment of the trace elements to determine how the addition of these elements will affect the vegetable crops grown under these experimental conditions. From this study, it was shown that trace element content in vegetable crops in the Western Cape Province of South Africa varied between different geographic locations and that certain trace elements were absent from several items collected from some areas. Although some crop species contained sufficient amounts of certain trace elements to satisfy our daily recommended intakes, most of the crops were found to contain insufficient amounts of many of the trace elements to satisfy our needs. Leafy vegetables and tubers were identified as the better vegetable types to biofortify with essential trace elements as they already contain higher concentrations of several of the essential trace elements and should thus be assessed for their effectiveness as crops to be biofortified. When the trace elements were applied directly to cress and lettuce seeds, it was found that all the trace elements, as well as the composite treatments, exerted phytotoxic effects on cress and/or lettuce seeds when applied athighconcentrations. Lettuce was found to be more prone to the effects of these elements. Seed germination was strongly inhibited by fluoride, while several elements affected root growth. When fluoride was left out of the composite treatment, phytotoxicity only occurred at high concentrations. The addition of the trace elements at the high concentrations to already established spinach, cabbage, lettuce and turnip plants were found to affect the uptake of several essential plant nutrients, but the concentrations of the elements affected generally remained higher than the concentrations needed for adequate growth of agricultural crops. Several of the trace elements supplied to the plants were also found to be retained in the roots of the vegetable crops however, as the concentrations supplied to the plants increased, so did the concentrations found in the edible portions of the crops

>Magister Scientiae - MSc / Micronutrient and trace element deficiencies are a problem affecting nearly two billion people globally. The people affected the most by these deficiencies are those living in poor and rural communities in the developing countries and thus cannot always afford the diverse diet as advocated by WHO and the FAO. Millions of these people living in the poor and developing countries die yearly, either directly or indirectly, as a result of micronutrient and trace element deficiencies. Thus, this study aimed to determine the nutrient content (Co, Cr, F, I, Se and V) of various vegetable based food items collected from the Cape Town area in the Western Cape Province of South Africa. This was done to determine which vegetable crops provided the highest concentrations of essential trace elements, and how much they contribute to the daily recommended intake (DRIs) of these trace elements. It also aimed to assess the effects of the addition of the trace elements (Co, Cr, F, I, Se, Si, Sn and V) on seed germination and root growth under controlled conditions in order to calculate their phytotoxicity, and then to biofortify four vegetable crop species, grown in sand culture, with a composite treatment of the trace elements to determine how the addition of these elements will affect the vegetable crops grown under these experimental conditions. From this study, it was shown that trace element content in vegetable crops in the Western Cape Province of South Africa varied between different geographic locations and that certain trace elements were absent from several items collected from some areas. Although some crop species contained sufficient amounts of certain trace elements to satisfy our daily recommended intakes, most of the crops were found to contain insufficient amounts of many of the trace elements to satisfy our needs. Leafy vegetables and tubers were identified as the better vegetable types to biofortify with essential trace elements as they already contain higher concentrations of several of the essential trace elements and should thus be assessed for their effectiveness as crops to be biofortified. When the trace elements were applied directly to cress and lettuce seeds, it was found that all the trace elements, as well as the composite treatments, exerted phytotoxic effects on cress and/or lettuce seeds when applied at high concentrations. Lettuce was found to be more prone to the effects of these elements. Seed germination was strongly inhibited by fluoride, while several elements affected root growth. When fluoride was left out of the composite treatment, phytotoxicity only occurred at high concentrations. The addition of the trace elements at the high concentrations to already established spinach, cabbage, lettuce and turnip plants were found to affect the uptake of several essential plant nutrients, but the concentrations of the elements affected generally remained higher than the concentrations needed for adequate growth of agricultural crops. Several of the trace elements supplied to the plants were also found to be retained in the roots of the vegetable crops however, as the concentrations supplied to the plants increased, so did the concentrations found in the edible portions of the crops. Agronomic biofortification of vegetable crops with simultaneous additions of multiple trace elements, under these experimental conditions, was thus considered to be a viable option to increase the concentrations of essential mineral nutrients in the edible portions of vegetable crops. However, these modified nutrient fertilizers should only be given to established crops or without the addition of fluoride. Further research on a wider variety of seeds and vegetable crops, as well as research under field conditions is needed to determine whether these findings remain relevant under these conditions.

Master of Science / Department of Agronomy / Dorivar Ruiz Diaz / The limitation of an essential nutrient for plant growth can affect crop yield. Research has been focused mainly on macronutrients, nevertheless micronutrients are equally important. This thesis is divided into three studies, which had the purpose of assessing frequent questions that producers have about micronutrient fertilizers and their effect on several crops in Kansas. The objective of the first study was to summarize and analyze results from studies since 1962 until 2015 to verify responses to zinc (Zn) and sulfur (S) fertilization in corn (Zea mays), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench), wheat (Triticum aestivum) and soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr). The treatments evaluated consisted of fertilizer Zn or S application versus their respective unfertilized treatments. Zinc fertilization significantly increased corn yield; no significant response was found for sorghum, wheat and soybean. Sulfur fertilization did not increase yields on corn and wheat. The objectives of the second study were: (i) to evaluate soybean response to S and micronutrients boron (B), copper (Cu), manganese (Mn), and Zn fertilizer application and to assess soil test and soybean seed and tissue nutrient concentration with fertilization. Treatments consisted of an unfertilized control, micronutrient fertilizer as individual nutrient for B, Cu, Mn, S and Zn applied broadcast pre-plant, in addition to a blend of these nutrients using two different placements (broadcast and band). Secondary and micronutrient fertilization showed no significant effect on soybean yield at any of the ten locations. Zinc fertilization showed significant effects on soybean tissue and seed Zn concentration. The objective of the third study was to evaluate soybean tissue nutrient response to micronutrient fertilizers in field strips with high variability in soil properties in the area evaluated. The study consisted of two strips (with and without fertilizer) and replicated three times. The treatment with fertilizer included a blend of Cu, Mn and Zn at a rate of 11.2 kg ha⁻¹ and B at a rate of 2.8 kg ha⁻¹. Initial soil tests B, Cu, Mn and Zn were not good indicators of soybean tissue response. Within-field variability of soybean Zn and B tissue content were affected by soil pH and organic matter; and these factors may be used to help explain field variability in plant availability. The micronutrient blend treatment showed higher tissue Zn and B values compared to the control. When pH ranged from 5.5 to 7.6, B in soybean tissue was higher on the control than the micronutrient blend treatment. Copper concentration in soybean tissue did not show significant difference between treatments at any location, regardless of pH and organic matter levels.

Orientador: André Rodrigues dos Reis / Resumo: O selênio (Se) é um nutriente para humanos e animais e um elemento benéfico para as plantas, sua baixa concentração nos solos do Brasil pode gerar deficiência nos animais e humanos. O fitato é a principal forma de reserva de fósforo (P) encontrado nas sementes de plantas, sendo considerado um “anti-nutriente” por formar complexos não digeríveis com nutrientes como Fe, Ca e Zn. Desta forma, existe a necessidade de se buscar alternativas para aumentar os teores de Se e reduzir o teor de fitato nas partes comestíveis de cultivares modernos. O objetivo do trabalho foi avaliar doses e fonte ótimas de Se a serem aplicadas em condições brasileiras, bem como a influência do Se na produção e qualidade nutricional em 29 genótipos de feijão-caupi. Para isso, foram desenvolvidos dois experimentos a seguir: Experimento 1: Foi avaliada a eficiência da biofortificação agronômica utilizando 2 fontes de Se (selenato e selenito) e 7 doses de Se (0; 2,5; 5,0; 10,0; 20,0; 40,0 e 60 g ha-1) aplicados via solo, foi realizada analise de fitatos nos grãos. Experimento 2: Foi realizado um experimento para caracterizar a absorção e acúmulo de Se, teor de fitatos, açucares, proteínas de reversa e amino ácidos nos grãos de diferentes genótipos de feijão-caupi, nesse experimento, 29 genótipos foram avaliados na presença e ausência de Se (0 e 25 kg ha-1), cultivados até o final do ciclo para a obtenção dos grãos. No experimento 1, observou-se que a aplicação de selenato proporciona maiores concentrações d... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Mestre

Iodine is an essential nutrient for humans, which is often not ingested through food in adequate quantities. Currently, Germany is once again one of the countries in which there is an iodine deficiency in the population. Women between the ages of 20 and 40 are particularly affected, a critical situation since pregnant and lactating women have an increased iodine requirement. Iodization of table salt is a widely used prophylactic measure. However, this method is not sufficient and may become less important in the future if further dietary salt reduction occurs, as nutritionists are demanding. Alternative approaches are therefore needed to improve the supply. One of these approaches is the agronomic biofortification of food crops. In this process, iodine is applied via fertilization measures during the cultivation of the plants. This gives the plants the ability to take up the mineral, which is only available in the soil to a very limited extent. In recent years, many studies have been published on the biofortification of vegetables and cereals. Foliar fertilization measures have proven to be significantly more efficient than soil fertilization measures. Nevertheless, up to now few results are available on the biofortification of fruit crops. However, fruit is also important for a healthy diet and the iodine supply of humans can only be improved if as many iodine-rich foods as possible are available. Therefore, the aim of this work was to investigate iodine biofortification of berry and tree fruit species in more detail. In order to be able to achieve this objective, trials were performed over several years with strawberries, apple and pear trees. In addition to suitable application methods, the aim was to determine the iodine form (iodide and iodate) and the necessary iodine quantity. On the one hand, the measured iodine contents in the fruit and leaf tissue allowed conclusions to be drawn about the translocation of iodine in the plant. On the other hand, this made it possible to evaluate the basic suitability for iodine biofortification of the fruit crops investigated. Since iodine has a phytotoxic effect above a certain amount, the plant compatibility should also be tested. In addition, common household processing methods, such as washing or peeling the fruit, as well as fruit storage over several months, should provide information on the extent to which such measures could reduce the iodine content. Another study parameter was the soluble solids content, as there is evidence that iodine can affect the sugar content of fruit. Furthermore, a combined application of potassium nitrate and selenium was carried out and their influence on iodine and sugar content was investigated. Selenium is also an essential trace element, which is usually inadequately absorbed through the diet. The results of the investigations showed that it was possible, in principle, to raise the iodine content of strawberries, apples and pears to a level of 50 to 100 µg iodine per 100 g fresh mass. In the case of strawberries, however, this was only feasible if the plants were in their first year of cultivation and the iodine was applied by foliar fertilization shortly before harvest. In the 2nd and 3rd year of cultivation, the plants had a very dense canopy, which prevented direct wetting of the fruit. However, direct wetting of the fruit surface with the iodine solution is imperative, as this was the only way to achieve a reliably high iodine content in the fruit mass. Soil fertilization proved to be completely unsuitable in trials with strawberries and apple trees. The translocation of iodine after soil fertilization occurred mainly via the xylem transport into the strongly transpiring leaves and not into the fruits. In addition, compared to a foliar application, a significantly higher iodine application rate was required. Furthermore, experiments with apple trees cultivated in a plastic tunnel, protected from precipitation, showed that the iodine transfer via the phloem into the fruits was only marginal. With regard to the phytotoxic effect of iodine application, no consistent difference was observed between potassium iodide and potassium iodate. Both forms of iodine did not affect yield or average individual fruit weight. Damage to fruit was not observed in any variant. However, with increasing iodine levels, significant damage to leaves was noticeable. Apple and pear trees also showed early leaf fall. Iodide generally led to significantly higher iodine contents in the plant mass after foliar application, but this was also associated with high fluctuations. With iodate, it was possible to reliably achieve the targeted iodine content in the fruit mass of apple and pear trees with an application rate of 1.5 kg iodine per hectare and meter canopy height. Washing the fruit reduced the iodine content of strawberries by up to 30%. For apples and pears, this value was about 14% at harvest and about 12% after 3 months of storage. Peeled apples and pears showed a significantly reduced iodine content. 51% of the iodine in apples was bound in the fruit peel or the cuticular waxes. A reduction of 73% was determined for pears. Cold storage for 3 months resulted in a significant loss of iodine in parts of the apple peel. At this point, the release of volatile iodine compounds is probably the cause of the reduction. However, this would still have to be confirmed by further investigations. Iodine application had a negative effect on the soluble solids content of strawberries above a certain level. It was not possible to observe significant changes for pome fruit in the trials conducted. However, the application of potassium nitrate (alone and in combination with iodine) resulted in an increase. Iodine uptake remained unaffected by the combined application of potassium nitrate and selenium. However, it was shown that selenium has a comparable uptake and translocation pattern to iodine and that a combined biofortification with both minerals is, in principle, possible. Accordingly, apple and pear trees are well suited for biofortification with iodine by foliar fertilization. However, further trials in commercial orchards are necessary to implement this process. In the future, appropriately fortified fruit could make an important contribution to the alimentary iodine supply for humans.

O Zn é essencial para o metabolismo de plantas, animais e do ser humano. Existe a necessidade de buscar soluções para a baixa disponibilidade de Zn, frequente em solos do Brasil e do mundo, e de melhorar o valor nutricional dos grãos de cereais com este nutriente. O tratamento de sementes pode apresentar-se como uma importante técnica para o fornecimento de Zn na cultura do milho (Zea mays L.). Este estudo foi dividido em quatro capítulos, no primeiro, objetivou-se avaliar o potencial fisiológico de sementes de milho tratadas com Zn durante o armazenamento; no segundo, avaliou-se a distribuição do Zn em sementes tratadas durante o armazenamento das sementes por 6 e 12 meses, bem como a absorção do Zn por plântulas; no terceiro capítulo, foram avaliados os reflexos do tratamento de sementes com Zn sobre a produção de biomassa, rendimento e valor nutricional dos grãos e, por fim, no quarto capítulo, determinou-se, pelo uso da marcação do óxido de Zn com o nuclídeo 68Zn, a absorção do Zn pela planta, utilizando o método isotópico. Os resultados demonstram que o tratamento de sementes pode incrementar o vigor das plântulas provenientes de sementes com baixo potencial fisiológico; entretanto, em condições de armazenamento com temperatura e umidade relativa do ar não controladas, plântulas provenientes de sementes maiores tratadas, armazenadas por 12 meses nessas condições, podem apresentar fitotoxicidade, em função do tratamento. O Zn disponibilizado em revestimento, durante o armazenamento das sementes tratadas por 6 e 12 meses, sob condições não controladas, pode penetrar no pericarpo das sementes e encontrar-se acumulado em pontos específicos da semente. O ponto de maior acúmulo de Zn nas sementes é o embrião, acima da camada negra. Quanto à absorção do Zn disponibilizado via tratamento por plântulas, após horas 72 horas de as sementes terem sido colocadas para germinar, são visíveis os pontos de acúmulo do Zn na raiz primária, evidenciando que tecidos meristemáticos possuem alta demanda pelo elemento. O tratamento de sementes com Zn não propiciou aumento da biomassa da planta, rendimento dos grãos, acúmulo de Zn nas plantas e concentração de Zn nos grãos. Apesar desse resultado, o Zn disponibilizado via tratamento de sementes contribui de forma significativa para a nutrição das plantas de milho, conforme se avaliou por meio da marcação isotópica. / Zn is essential to the metabolism of plants, animals and human being. There is the need for solutions regarding the low availability of Zn, frequent on soils of Brazil and of the world, and for improving the nutritional value of grains with this nutrient. Treatment of seeds may present as an important technique for the provision of Zn in the corn culture (Zea mays L.). This study is organized in four chapters, in the first one, the objective is to determine the physiological potential of corn seeds treated with Zn during storage; in the second, the Zn distribution in seeds treated during storage for 6 and 12 months was analyzed, as well as the Zn absorption by plantules; in the third chapter, reflexes of the treatment of seeds with Zn over the production of biomass were evaluated and, lastly, the fourth chapter aims at determining the absorption of Zn by the plant, using the isotope method and marking zinc oxide with the 68Zn nuclide. Results showed that the treatment of the seeds may improve the vigor of plantules coming from seeds with low physiological potential; however, treated plantules coming from bigger seeds, stored for 12 months in uncontrolled conditions of temperature and relative humidity may present phytotoxicity because of the treatment. Zn made available in form of coating, during storage of seeds treated for 6 and 12 months, in uncontrolled conditions, may penetrate the pericarp of seeds and accumulate on specific spots. The biggest Zn accumulation spot Zn in seeds is the embryo, above the black layer. Regarding the absorption of Zn by the plantules made available via treatment, after 72 hours seeds germinated, accumulation spots of Zn in the primary root are visible, showing that the meristematic tissues have a high demand for the element. The treatment of seeds with Zn did not favor increase in the biomass of the plant, grain yield, accumulation of Zn in plants and concentration of Zn in grains. Despite this result, Zn made available via treatment of seeds contributes significantly for the nutrition of corn plants, as evaluated using isotope marking.

O Zn é essencial para o metabolismo de plantas, animais e do ser humano. Existe a necessidade de buscar soluções para a baixa disponibilidade de Zn, frequente em solos do Brasil e do mundo, e de melhorar o valor nutricional dos grãos de cereais com este nutriente. O tratamento de sementes pode apresentar-se como uma importante técnica para o fornecimento de Zn na cultura do milho (Zea mays L.). Este estudo foi dividido em quatro capítulos, no primeiro, objetivou-se avaliar o potencial fisiológico de sementes de milho tratadas com Zn durante o armazenamento; no segundo, avaliou-se a distribuição do Zn em sementes tratadas durante o armazenamento das sementes por 6 e 12 meses, bem como a absorção do Zn por plântulas; no terceiro capítulo, foram avaliados os reflexos do tratamento de sementes com Zn sobre a produção de biomassa, rendimento e valor nutricional dos grãos e, por fim, no quarto capítulo, determinou-se, pelo uso da marcação do óxido de Zn com o nuclídeo 68Zn, a absorção do Zn pela planta, utilizando o método isotópico. Os resultados demonstram que o tratamento de sementes pode incrementar o vigor das plântulas provenientes de sementes com baixo potencial fisiológico; entretanto, em condições de armazenamento com temperatura e umidade relativa do ar não controladas, plântulas provenientes de sementes maiores tratadas, armazenadas por 12 meses nessas condições, podem apresentar fitotoxicidade, em função do tratamento. O Zn disponibilizado em revestimento, durante o armazenamento das sementes tratadas por 6 e 12 meses, sob condições não controladas, pode penetrar no pericarpo das sementes e encontrar-se acumulado em pontos específicos da semente. O ponto de maior acúmulo de Zn nas sementes é o embrião, acima da camada negra. Quanto à absorção do Zn disponibilizado via tratamento por plântulas, após horas 72 horas de as sementes terem sido colocadas para germinar, são visíveis os pontos de acúmulo do Zn na raiz primária, evidenciando que tecidos meristemáticos possuem alta demanda pelo elemento. O tratamento de sementes com Zn não propiciou aumento da biomassa da planta, rendimento dos grãos, acúmulo de Zn nas plantas e concentração de Zn nos grãos. Apesar desse resultado, o Zn disponibilizado via tratamento de sementes contribui de forma significativa para a nutrição das plantas de milho, conforme se avaliou por meio da marcação isotópica. / Zn is essential to the metabolism of plants, animals and human being. There is the need for solutions regarding the low availability of Zn, frequent on soils of Brazil and of the world, and for improving the nutritional value of grains with this nutrient. Treatment of seeds may present as an important technique for the provision of Zn in the corn culture (Zea mays L.). This study is organized in four chapters, in the first one, the objective is to determine the physiological potential of corn seeds treated with Zn during storage; in the second, the Zn distribution in seeds treated during storage for 6 and 12 months was analyzed, as well as the Zn absorption by plantules; in the third chapter, reflexes of the treatment of seeds with Zn over the production of biomass were evaluated and, lastly, the fourth chapter aims at determining the absorption of Zn by the plant, using the isotope method and marking zinc oxide with the 68Zn nuclide. Results showed that the treatment of the seeds may improve the vigor of plantules coming from seeds with low physiological potential; however, treated plantules coming from bigger seeds, stored for 12 months in uncontrolled conditions of temperature and relative humidity may present phytotoxicity because of the treatment. Zn made available in form of coating, during storage of seeds treated for 6 and 12 months, in uncontrolled conditions, may penetrate the pericarp of seeds and accumulate on specific spots. The biggest Zn accumulation spot Zn in seeds is the embryo, above the black layer. Regarding the absorption of Zn by the plantules made available via treatment, after 72 hours seeds germinated, accumulation spots of Zn in the primary root are visible, showing that the meristematic tissues have a high demand for the element. The treatment of seeds with Zn did not favor increase in the biomass of the plant, grain yield, accumulation of Zn in plants and concentration of Zn in grains. Despite this result, Zn made available via treatment of seeds contributes significantly for the nutrition of corn plants, as evaluated using isotope marking.