This thesis has improved Baltazar's methodology for potential energy savings estimation from retro-commissioning/retrofits measures. Important improvements and discussions are made on optimization parameters, limits on optimization parameter values, minimum airflow setting for VAV systems, space load calculation, simulation of buildings with more than one type of system, AHU shutdown simulation, and air-side simulation models. A prototype computer tool called the Potential Energy Savings Estimation (PESE) Toolkit is developed to implement the improved methodology and used for testing. The implemented methodology is tested in two retro-commissioned on-campus buildings with hourly measured consumption data. In the Sanders Corps of Cadets Center, the optimized profiles of parameter settings in single parameter optimizations can be explained with engineering principles. It reveals that the improved methodology is implemented correctly in the tool. The case study on the Coke Building shows that the improved methodology can be used in buildings with more than one system type. The methodology is then used to estimate annual potential energy cost savings for 14 office buildings in Austin, TX with very limited information and utility bills. The methodology has predicted an average total potential savings of 36% for SDVAV systems with electric terminal reheat, 22% for SDVAV systems with hot water reheat, and 25% for DDVAV systems. The estimations are compared with savings predicted in the Continuous Commissioning assessment report. The results show it may be helpful to study the correlation by using generalized factors of assessment predicted energy cost savings to estimated potential energy cost savings. The factors identified in this application are 0.68, 0.66, and 0.61 for each type of system. It is noted that one should be cautious in quoting these factors in future projects. In the future, it would be valuable to study the correlation between measured savings and estimated potential savings in a large number of buildings with retrocommissioning measures implemented. Additionally, further testing and modifications on the PESE Toolkit are necessary to make it a reliable software tool.

[EN] In the first part of the current thesis, two fundamental numerical models (Fin2D-W and Fin1D-MB) for analyzing the air-side performance of minichannel evaporators were developed and verified. The Fin2D-W model applies a comprehensive two-dimensional scheme to discretize the evaporator. On the other hand, the Fin1D-MB model is based on the one-dimensional fin theory in conjunction with the moving boundaries technique along the fin height. The first objective of the two presented models is to identify and quantify the most influential phenomena encountered in the process of cooling and dehumidification. The second objective is to study the impact of the classical modeling assumptions on the air-side performance of minichannel evaporators. Different comparative studies between the traditional Effectiveness-NTU approach and the proposed numerical models were implemented to achieve the mentioned goals. The results revealed that the modeling assumptions which have the most significant impacts on the heat and mass transfer rates are: the uniform air properties along the fin height, adiabatic-fin-tip at half the height, and negligence of partial dehumidification scenarios. These widely used assumptions resulted in substantial deviations in total heat transfer rate, up to 52%, between the Effectiveness-NTU approach and Fin2D-W model. In the second part of the thesis, the Fin1D-MB model was integrated into the IMST-ART® simulation tool to evaluate the global performance of minichannel evaporators (air- and refrigerant-side). The Fin1D-MB model was selected because of its simplicity, calculation speed, and reasonable solution accuracy relative to the Fin2D-W model. The validation of the complete Fin1D-MB model was conducted against many experimental data and numerical models available in the literature. The validation process was achieved for different heat exchanger geometries, refrigerants, and operating conditions. The results showed that for the R134a minichannel evaporators studied, the Fin1D-MB model successfully predicted the Inlet refrigerant and outlet air temperatures, cooling capacity, and refrigerant-side pressure drop within error bands of ±0.5 ºC, ±5%, and ±20%, respectively. For the CO2 (R744) minichannel evaporator studied, the presented model estimated the cooling capacity and outlet air temperature within error bands of ±10% and ±1.0 ºC, respectively. Regarding the CO2 pressure drop, the Fin1D-MB model generally underpredicted the pressure drop values compared to the experimental data, with a maximum deviation of 11 kPa. / [ES] En la primera parte de la tesis actual, dos modelos numéricos fundamentales (Fin2D-W y Fin1D-MB) para analizar el lado del aire de los evaporadores de minicanales se han desarrollado y verificado. El modelo Fin2D-W aplica un esquema detallado de dos dimensiones para discretizar el evaporador mientras que el modelo Fin1D-MB se basa en la teoría de la aleta unidimensional junto con la técnica de fronteras móviles para el lado del aire. El primer objetivo de los dos modelos presentados es identificar y cuantificar los fenómenos más influyentes encontrados en el proceso de enfriamiento y deshumidificación. El segundo objetivo es estudiar el impacto de las hipótesis comúnmente usadas en el modelado de la transmisión de calor del aire de los evaporadores de minicanales. Se implementaron diferentes estudios comparativos entre el enfoque tradicional Effectiveness-NTU y los modelos numéricos propuestos para alcanzar los objetivos mencionados. Los resultados muestran que las hipótesis que provocan una mayor desviación con respecto a la solución detallada en la transferencia de calor y masa son: propiedades de aire uniforme a lo largo de la altura de la aleta, extremo adiabático de aleta a mitad de su longitud, y no contemplar el supuesto de deshumidificación parcial en la aleta. Estas hipótesis ampliamente utilizadas han resultado en errores importantes en la transferencia de calor total, hasta un 52%, entre el enfoque Effectiveness-NTU y el modelo Fin2D-W. En la segunda parte de la tesis, el modelo Fin1D-MB se integró en la herramienta de simulación IMST-ART® para evaluar el rendimiento global de los evaporadores de minicanales (en el lado del aire y del refrigerante). El modelo Fin1D-MB se seleccionó gracias a su simplicidad, velocidad de cálculo, y solución de una precisión razonable relativa al modelo Fin2D-W. Se realizó una validación del modelo completo Fin1D-MB con la ayuda de datos experimentales y modelos numéricos ya disponibles en la literatura. El modelo se ha validado para diferentes geometrías de intercambiadores de calor, refrigerantes y condiciones de funcionamiento. Los resultados han mostrado que para los evaporadores de minicanales funcionando con el refrigerante R134a, el modelo Fin1D-MB predice de manera correcta las temperaturas de entrada del refrigerante y de salida del aire, la capacidad de enfriamiento, y la caída de presión del lado de refrigerante dentro de las bandas de error de ±0.5 ºC, ±5%, y ±20%, respectivamente. Para el evaporador de minicanales con CO2 (R744) estudiado, el modelo estima la capacidad de refrigeración y la temperatura de salida del aire dentro de las bandas de error de ±10% y ±1.0 ºC, respectivamente. En cuanto a la caída de presión de CO2, el modelo Fin1D-MB generalmente predice a la baja los valores de la caída de presión en comparación con los datos experimentales, con una desviación máxima de 11 kPa. / [CAT] A la primera part de la tesi actual, dos models numèrics fonamentals (Fin2D-W i Fin1D-MB) per analitzar el costat de l'aire dels evaporadors de minicanals s'han desenvolupat i verificat. Al model Fin2D-W s'aplica un esquema detallat de dues dimensions per discretitzar l'evaporador mentre que al model Fin1D-MB es basa en la teoria d'aleta unidimensional juntament amb la tècnica de frontera mòbil per al costat de l'aire. El primer objectiu dels dos models presentats és identificar i quantificar els fenòmens més influents trobats en el procés de refredament i deshumidificació. El segon objectiu és estudiar l'impacte de les hipòtesis comunament utilitzades en el modelatge de la transmissió de calor de l'aire dels evaporadors de minicanals. Es van implementar diferents estudis comparatius entre l'enfocament tradicional Effectiveness-NTU i els models numèrics proposats per assolir els objectius esmentats. Els resultats mostren que les hipòtesis que provoquen una major desviació respecte a la solució detallada a la transferència de calor i massa són: propietats d'aire uniforme al llarg de l'altura de l'aleta, extrem adiabàtic d'aleta a la meitat de la seua longitud, i no contemplar el supòsit de deshumidificació parcial en l'aleta. Aquestes hipòtesis àmpliament utilitzades donen errors importants en la transferència de calor total, fins a un 52%, entre l'enfocament Effectiveness-NTU i el model Fin2D-W. A la segona part de la tesi, el model Fin1D-MB es va integrar en l'eina de simulació IMST-ART® per avaluar el rendiment global dels evaporadors de minicanals (al costat de l'aire i del refrigerant). El model Fin1D-MB es va seleccionar gràcies a la seva simplicitat, velocitat de càlcul, i solució d'una precisió raonable relativa al model Fin2D-W. Es va realitzar una validació del model complet Fin1D-MB amb l'ajuda de dades experimentals i models numèrics ja disponibles a la literatura. El model s'ha validat per a diferents geometries d'intercanviadors de calor, refrigerants i condicions de funcionament. Els resultats mostren que per als evaporadors de minicanals funcionant amb el refrigerant R134a, el model Fin1D-MB prediu de manera correcta les temperatures d'entrada del refrigerant i de sortida de l'aire, la capacitat de refreda-ment, i la caiguda de pressió del costat de refrigerant dins de les bandes d'error de ±0.5 ºC, ±5%, i ±20%, respectivament. Per a l'evaporador de minicanals amb CO2 (R744) estudiat, el model estima la capacitat de refrigeració i la temperatura de sortida de l'aire dins de les bandes d'error de ±10% i ±1.0 ºC, respectivament. Pel que fa a la caiguda de pressió de CO2, el model Fin1D-MB generalment prediu a la baixa els valors de la caiguda de pressió en comparació amb les dades experimentals, amb una desviació màxima d'11 kPa. / Hassan, AHA. (2016). Development and Validation of a Minichannel Evaporator Model under Dehumidification [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/71357 / TESIS

A presente pesquisa trata do estudo teórico/experimental dos efeitos da geometria e dos parâmetros construtivos em trocadores de calor compactos do tipo serpentina para aplicações em refrigeração e ar condicionado no desempenho termo/hidráulico do ar. Para tanto, 15 serpentinas comerciais foram submetidas a testes em uma bancada experimental onde ambas as condições de entrada do ar e da água quente, utilizada como fluido dos tubos, podiam ser controladas e ajustadas. Serpentinas com aletas corrugadas (\"wavy\") e ventiladas convexas (\"convex louver\"), com distintas densidades de atletas, número de fileiras de tubos em profundidade, diâmetro e passo de tubos foram investigadas. Um programa de simulação de serpentinas foi desenvolvido para dar suporte ao tratamento de resultados. Os resultados experimentais obtidos confirmaram tendências da literatura acerca de efeitos da geometria da serpentina no desempenho termo/hidráulico do ar nas serpentinas. Algumas correlações da literatura se compararam bem aos resultados experimentais, embora algumas ilustraram importantes discrepâncias. Foram também investigadas distintas configurações geométricas segundo uma análise que envolve a segunda lei da Termodinâmica. Finalmente, os resultados experimentais, mediante regressão de dados, permitiram a elaboração de correlações gerais para os coeficientes de transferência de calor e de atrito do ar que incorporam os efeitos dos parâmetros geométricos das serpentinas. Tais correlações representaram bem os resultados experimentais com razoável acuracidade. / The research reported herein is about a theoretical and experimental study of the effects of geometric and constructive parameters of compact heat exchangers of the coil type for refrigeration and air conditioning applications over the air-side thermo-hydraulic performance. For that purpose, 15 commercial coils have been submitted to tests in an experimental set-up where both the inlet conditions of the air and those of the warm water, used as tube fluid, could be adequately controlled and adjusted. Wavy and convex louver fin coils with different fin density, number of tube rows, and tube spacing and diameter have been investigated. A computer simulation program of air coils has been developed as a working tool in the experimental results treatment and manipulation. The obtained experimental results follow closely established trends of the literature regarding the effects of the geometric parameters over the thermo-hydraulic performance of the air flow in the coils. Some correlations from the literature compare reasonably well with the experimental results though some have shown important discrepancies. It has also been investigated the performance of the different geometric configurations through a second law of Thermodynamics analysis. Finally, experimental results have been curve fitted in such a way to develop generalized correlations for the air-side heat transfer and friction coefficients that include all the important geometric parameters of the aircoils. Such correlations have proved to fit the experimental results with reasonable accuracy.

A presente pesquisa trata do estudo teórico/experimental dos efeitos da geometria e dos parâmetros construtivos em trocadores de calor compactos do tipo serpentina para aplicações em refrigeração e ar condicionado no desempenho termo/hidráulico do ar. Para tanto, 15 serpentinas comerciais foram submetidas a testes em uma bancada experimental onde ambas as condições de entrada do ar e da água quente, utilizada como fluido dos tubos, podiam ser controladas e ajustadas. Serpentinas com aletas corrugadas (\"wavy\") e ventiladas convexas (\"convex louver\"), com distintas densidades de atletas, número de fileiras de tubos em profundidade, diâmetro e passo de tubos foram investigadas. Um programa de simulação de serpentinas foi desenvolvido para dar suporte ao tratamento de resultados. Os resultados experimentais obtidos confirmaram tendências da literatura acerca de efeitos da geometria da serpentina no desempenho termo/hidráulico do ar nas serpentinas. Algumas correlações da literatura se compararam bem aos resultados experimentais, embora algumas ilustraram importantes discrepâncias. Foram também investigadas distintas configurações geométricas segundo uma análise que envolve a segunda lei da Termodinâmica. Finalmente, os resultados experimentais, mediante regressão de dados, permitiram a elaboração de correlações gerais para os coeficientes de transferência de calor e de atrito do ar que incorporam os efeitos dos parâmetros geométricos das serpentinas. Tais correlações representaram bem os resultados experimentais com razoável acuracidade. / The research reported herein is about a theoretical and experimental study of the effects of geometric and constructive parameters of compact heat exchangers of the coil type for refrigeration and air conditioning applications over the air-side thermo-hydraulic performance. For that purpose, 15 commercial coils have been submitted to tests in an experimental set-up where both the inlet conditions of the air and those of the warm water, used as tube fluid, could be adequately controlled and adjusted. Wavy and convex louver fin coils with different fin density, number of tube rows, and tube spacing and diameter have been investigated. A computer simulation program of air coils has been developed as a working tool in the experimental results treatment and manipulation. The obtained experimental results follow closely established trends of the literature regarding the effects of the geometric parameters over the thermo-hydraulic performance of the air flow in the coils. Some correlations from the literature compare reasonably well with the experimental results though some have shown important discrepancies. It has also been investigated the performance of the different geometric configurations through a second law of Thermodynamics analysis. Finally, experimental results have been curve fitted in such a way to develop generalized correlations for the air-side heat transfer and friction coefficients that include all the important geometric parameters of the aircoils. Such correlations have proved to fit the experimental results with reasonable accuracy.

O objetivo da presente pesquisa é analisar o desempenho termo-hidráulico do lado do ar de trocadores de calor tubo-aletados. Uma pesquisa da literatura foi executada em duas áreas diferentes: desempenho termo-hidráulico e seleção de superfície, feita por comparações de desempenho, para otimizar o projeto de trocadores de calor. O impulso principal da pesquisa esteve na avaliação experimental de dez serpentinas para investigar o efeito dos seguintes parâmetros sobre o desempenho do lado do ar: número de fileiras de tubos, densidade de aletas, superfície interna dos tubos e superfície da aleta (corrugada ou janelada). Os experimentos foram executados com água quente escoando internamente aos tubos em uma bancada de testes equipada com controladores que permitiram o controle exato e a medição das condições do ar e da água. As comparações com dados disponíveis na literatura para condições semelhantes revelaram que as tendências dos resultados presentes são coerentes e adequadas. Os resultados de transferência de calor e perda de carga da presente investigação não são adequadamente correlacionados por equações da literatura, sendo os desvios atribuíveis a diferenças na geometria das aletas. Finalmente, um procedimento de seleção de superfície para as aletas foi testado baseado em uma relação entre o índice de transferência de calor e a potência de bombeando. A superfície que obteve melhor desempenho entre as testadas foi a aleta janelada numa serpentina de quatro fileiras de tubos / The aim of the present research was to analyze the termo-hidraulic performance of the air side of plate-fin-and-tube heat exchangers. A literature survey has been carried out in two different areas: thermo-hidraulic performance and surface selection, done by performance comparisons, to optimize heat exchangers design. The main thrust of the research has been in the experimental evaluation of ten coils in order to investigate the effect of the following parameters over the air side performance: number of tube rows, fin density, tubes internal surface and surface fins (wavy or louvered). Experiments have been carried out with warm water as the tube fluid in a test bench with control capabilities which allowed the accurate control and measurement of air and water conditions. Comparisons with data available in the literature for similar conditions have revealed that the trends of the present results are consistent and adequate. Heat transfer and pressure drop results of the present investigation are not adequately correlated by equations from literature, deviations being attributable to differences in the geometry of the fins. Finally, a procedure for fin surface selection has been tested based on the ratio between the heat transfer rate and the pumping power. The best performing surface among the ones tested was the louver fin in a four tube row coil

O objetivo da presente pesquisa é analisar o desempenho termo-hidráulico do lado do ar de trocadores de calor tubo-aletados. Uma pesquisa da literatura foi executada em duas áreas diferentes: desempenho termo-hidráulico e seleção de superfície, feita por comparações de desempenho, para otimizar o projeto de trocadores de calor. O impulso principal da pesquisa esteve na avaliação experimental de dez serpentinas para investigar o efeito dos seguintes parâmetros sobre o desempenho do lado do ar: número de fileiras de tubos, densidade de aletas, superfície interna dos tubos e superfície da aleta (corrugada ou janelada). Os experimentos foram executados com água quente escoando internamente aos tubos em uma bancada de testes equipada com controladores que permitiram o controle exato e a medição das condições do ar e da água. As comparações com dados disponíveis na literatura para condições semelhantes revelaram que as tendências dos resultados presentes são coerentes e adequadas. Os resultados de transferência de calor e perda de carga da presente investigação não são adequadamente correlacionados por equações da literatura, sendo os desvios atribuíveis a diferenças na geometria das aletas. Finalmente, um procedimento de seleção de superfície para as aletas foi testado baseado em uma relação entre o índice de transferência de calor e a potência de bombeando. A superfície que obteve melhor desempenho entre as testadas foi a aleta janelada numa serpentina de quatro fileiras de tubos / The aim of the present research was to analyze the termo-hidraulic performance of the air side of plate-fin-and-tube heat exchangers. A literature survey has been carried out in two different areas: thermo-hidraulic performance and surface selection, done by performance comparisons, to optimize heat exchangers design. The main thrust of the research has been in the experimental evaluation of ten coils in order to investigate the effect of the following parameters over the air side performance: number of tube rows, fin density, tubes internal surface and surface fins (wavy or louvered). Experiments have been carried out with warm water as the tube fluid in a test bench with control capabilities which allowed the accurate control and measurement of air and water conditions. Comparisons with data available in the literature for similar conditions have revealed that the trends of the present results are consistent and adequate. Heat transfer and pressure drop results of the present investigation are not adequately correlated by equations from literature, deviations being attributable to differences in the geometry of the fins. Finally, a procedure for fin surface selection has been tested based on the ratio between the heat transfer rate and the pumping power. The best performing surface among the ones tested was the louver fin in a four tube row coil

No description available.

Ce travail s'intéresse à la compréhension du comportement des flammes non-prémélangées issues d'un jet de méthane assisté par un coflow d'air dilué avec du CO2, ou d'autres gaz chimiquement inertes pour discriminer les différents phénomènes impliqués dans la dilution. Les phénomènes transitionnels, décrochage et extinction, quantifiés par des limites de stabilité, sont analysés à l'aide de grandeurs physiques représentatives. Le domaine de stabilité de flamme est limité par des surfaces 3D dans le domaine physique ( Qdiluant/Qair (taux de dilution), Uair (vitesse d'air), UCH4 (vitesse de méthane)), révélant un effet compétitif entre l'aérodynamique et la dilution. Des cartographies génériques de décrochage et d'extinction communes à tous ces diluants sont proposées. Des grandeurs liées à la stabilisation sont toutes soumises à des lois d'évolution auto-simlilaires. Il en ressort que la vitesse de propagation de flamme est l'élément clé du mécanisme de stabilisation lors de la dilution. / This work focuses on the understanding of the behaviours of non-premixed methane flame inside an air coflow diluted by carbon dyoxide (CO2) or by other chemically inert diluents in order to discriminate different phenomena involved in dilution. Transitional phenomena (liftoff and extinction) quantified trough the stability limits, are analyzed trough representative physical quantities. The flame stability domain is limited by 3D-surfaces (liftoff and extinction) in the physical domain (Qdiluant/Qair (dilution level), Uair (air velocity), UCH4 (methane velocity)) revealing a competitive effect between aerodynamics and dilution. Generic diagrams of flame liftoff and extinction are proposed for all the diluents. Physical quantities related to flame stabilization process are all submitted to, regardless of diluent, self-similar laws. This is explained by flame burning velocity which is considered as the key element in the flame stabilization mechanism with air-side dilution.

The residential building sector plays an important role in combating climate change in Canada. Many energy efficiency solutions along with new building energy standards have been implemented to improve building energy performance. However, their effects on energy saving and GHG emissions reduction vary due to the complexity of the building systems and the variability of their operational conditions. This work quantifies such variability in both energy efficiency devices and building energy standards implementation, respectively. The first study in this dissertation assesses the energy savings from sensible heat recovery in a residential apartment suite in various locations across Canada. A series of detailed building energy performance models are developed in TRNSYS. The HVAC system’s annual energy consumption is simulated and the results are compared with and without HRV for each climate zone. The results show the heating energy savings of employing the HRV vary from 17 to 34% depending on the winter climatic conditions; while, the building cooling energy use can be increased due to the undesired thermal recovery occurring in the HRV during the cooling season. The second study investigates the free cooling potential of outside air in various Canadian cities. A series of thermal models developed using BEopt 2.8 for a hypothetical single-family house with various window-to-wall ratios and building aspect ratios simulates hourly building cooling load profiles. The free cooling potential is analyzed by comparing the maximum available and the actual usable free cooling for various building features and different climates. The results indicate that, although free cooling is widely available in most areas of Canada during the summer and shoulder seasons, only 17-42% of such free cooling is usable without the use of thermal storage. The last study examines the effects of two building energy standards - the BC Step Code and the Passive House criteria - on reductions in residential household space heating GHG emissions under different enforcement scenarios. The space heating energy and the GHG emissions are estimated using the forecast growth of single detached households for the period from 2020 to 2032. The results show that the space heating GHG emissions can be reduced by 77% and 89%, respectively if the BC Step Code or the Passive House criteria is implemented in Canada. It is also found the impacts of energy code on GHG emission mitigation are less significant in regions where the carbon intensity of the dominant heating fuels is low. / Graduate