SUMMARY Respiratory mucosal surfaces are constantly exposed to a broad range of non-pathogenic environmental antigens. In the absence of proinflammatory signals, inhalation of harmless antigens results in immunological tolerance. Indeed, lung dendritic cells stimulate the development of antigen-specific regulatory T cells. Nevertheless, epidemiological studies have shown that ambient air contains not only inert antigens but also immunostimulatory molecules of microbial origin. Of particular interest are endotoxins, a cell wall component of gram-negative bacteria that is ubiquitous in the environment. In spite of the fact that high levels of endotoxin exposure in early life protect against allergic sensitization, most evidence indicates that exposure to house-dust endotoxin is a significant risk factor for increased asthma prevalence and severity. When the respiratory tract is stimulated with airborne endotoxins, lung dendritic cells lose their tolerogenic properties and rather promote the development of an allergic response directed against concomitant aeroantigens. Although endotoxins are omnipresent in the environment and favour airway allergy, only a minority of people develops asthma. A unifying model reconciling these conflicting observations is still lacking. We report here that LPS-triggered airway allergy is tightly controlled by lung interstitial macrophages, a cell population that remains largely uncharacterized. Interstitial macrophages could be distinguished from alveolar macrophages by their unique capacity to inhibit lung dendritic cell maturation and migration upon LPS stimulation, thereby preventing sensitization to concomitant inhaled antigens. We furthermore demonstrated that functional paralysis of LPS-stimulated dendritic cells involves interleukin-10 production by interstitial macrophages. Finally, we demonstrate that specific in vivo elimination of interstitial macrophages leads to overt asthmatic reactions to innocuous airborne antigens inhaled along with low LPS doses. Our study thus reveals a crucial role for interstitial macrophages in maintaining immune homeostasis in the respiratory tract and provides an explanation for the paradox that airborne LPS has the ability to promote the induction of Th2 responses by lung dendritic cells but does not provoke airway allergy under normal conditions. In the presence of LPS, interstitial macrophages, but not alveolar macrophages, break the link between innate and adaptive immunity, allowing harmless inhaled antigens to escape from T cell-dependent responses. RÉSUMÉ Le système respiratoire est continuellement exposé à de nombreux antigènes environnementaux non pathogéniques. En labsence de signal proinflammatoire, linhalation dantigènes inoffensifs aboutit au développement dune tolérance immunologique. Dans ces conditions, les cellules dendritiques pulmonaires tolérogènes stimulent le développement de lymphocytes T régulateurs. Cependant, les études épidémiologiques montrent que lair ambiant ne contient pas que des antigènes inertes mais également des molécules immunostimulatrices dorigine microbienne dont les endotoxines (LPS, lipopolysaccharide). La présence dans lenvironnement de ce composant de la paroi des bactéries Gram négatives est ubiquiste. Malgré le fait que lexposition à de hauts niveaux de LPS durant lenfance semble protéger contre la sensibilisation allergique, la plupart des études montrent que les endotoxines contenues dans la poussière domestique constituent un facteur de risque significatif pour la prévalence et la sévérité de lasthme. Quand le système respiratoire est stimulé par le LPS aérogène, les cellules dendritiques perdent leurs propriétés tolérogènes et deviennent capables dinduire le développement dune réponse allergique. Bien que les endotoxines soient omniprésentes dans lenvironnement et favorisent lallergie des voies respiratoires, seulement une minorité de personnes est asthmatique. Ces observations contradictoires impliquent lexistence de mécanismes protecteurs non encore décrits capables de prévenir les réponses allergiques induites par les endotoxines. Nous montrons dans ce travail que lallergie des voies respiratoires induite par le LPS est étroitement contrôlée par les macrophages interstitiels, une sous-population de macrophages pulmonaires dont la fonction in vivo navait jamais été caractérisée. Les macrophages interstitiels peuvent être distingués des macrophages alvéolaires par leur capacité unique à inhiber la maturation et la migration des cellules dendritiques induites par lexposition du système respiratoire au LPS, prévenant ainsi la sensibilisation aux aéroantigènes inhalés concomitamment. De plus, nous démontrons que linhibition fonctionnelle des cellules dendritiques implique la sécrétion dIL-10 par les macrophages interstitiels. Finalement, nous montrons que lélimination spécifique des macrophages interstitiels in vivo aboutit au développement dune réponse asthmatique dirigée contre les aéroantigènes inoffensifs inhalés avec de faibles doses de LPS. Notre travail révèle un rôle crucial des macrophages interstitiels dans le maintien de lhoméostasie immunitaire du tractus respiratoire et fournit une explication au paradoxe que le LPS aérogène a la capacité de favoriser linduction de réponses Th2 par les cellules dendritiques mais ne provoque pas dallergie des voies respiratoires dans les conditions normales. En présence de LPS, les macrophages interstitiels, mais pas les macrophages alvéolaires, brisent le lien entre limmunité innée et limmunité adaptative, permettant aux antigènes inhalés déchapper aux réponses dépendantes des lymphocytes T.

The major allergen Der p 1 of the house dust mite Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus is a papain-like cysteine protease (CA1) associated to the development of allergic diseases such as asthma, rhinitis or atopic dermatitis. This allergen is expressed as an inactive precursor, called proDer p 1, formed by a 25 kDa catalytic domain downstream to an 10 kDa N-terminal propeptide, which blocks the active site cleft. The propeptide of Der p 1 exhibits a specific fold, which makes it unique in the CA1 propeptide family as it is characterised by the presence of four alpha helices and the absence of ERFNIN motif. In this study, we investigated the activation steps involved in the maturation of recombinant proDer p 1 expressed in Pichia pastoris under acidic conditions and we studied the influence of acidic pH on the structure of both propeptide and catalytic domain. Therefore, we characterized the interaction between the propeptide and mature Der p 1 at different pH values in terms of activity inhibition, structural stability and proteolytic susceptibility. According to our results, the auto-activation of proDer p 1 is a multistep mechanism, characterized by at least two intermediates (ATFE- and SNGG-) corresponding to the loss of the first and second propeptide alpha helices, respectively. The propeptide strongly inhibits unglycosylated and glycosylated recombinant Der p 1 (KD= 7 nM) at neutral pH. This inhibition is pH dependent, decreasing from pH 7 to pH 4 and can be related to structural changes of the propeptide initiated by the protonation of the aspartate residue of Lys17-Asp51-Tyr19 structural triad presents within the propeptide N-terminal domain. This protonation triggers conformational changes of the first propeptide alpha helix leading to an increase of the propeptide flexibility, an increase of its proteolytic sensitivity and the formation of a molten globule state. In addition, we compare mature protease, zymogen and propeptide pH unfolding and stability and highlights that the presence of the propeptide does not influence the catalytic domain pH unfolding and stability as the propeptide displays a weaker pH stability than the protease domain. These results confirmed that the propeptide unfolding is the key event of the activation process. Finally, we unravel the intermolecular contribution of mature Der p 1 in the activation process and highlights that activation of the precursor can be achieved, under acidic conditions, by intermolecular process but initial auto-activation most probably occurs through an intramolecular process or by the proteolysis by the catalytic domain of another zymogen in which the propeptide is unfolded. According to our results, we proposed that activation of the zymogen at pH 4 reflects a compromise between activity preservation and propeptide unfolding and that the location of the activation sites on the propeptide structure is a compromise between sequence recognition specificity and proteolytic susceptibility of the corresponding area.