Synaptic plasticity, which is thought to represent the neuronal substrate for learning and memory is influenced by the degree of GABAergic inhibitory tone. In particular, γ-aminobutyric acid subtype A receptors (GABAARs), which mediate the majority of inhibitory neurotransmission in the mammalian brain regulate learning and plasticity. In these studies I examined a subpopulation of α5 subunit-containing GABAA receptors (α5GABAARs), which are preferentially expressed in the hippocampus, to determine whether they have a specific role in memory processes. I hypothesized that α5GABAAR-activity constrains hippocampus-dependent learning and CA1 synaptic plasticity. The main research objective of this thesis was to investigate the electrophysiological changes within the hippocampus that accompany genetic and pharmacological targeting of α5GABAARs and how these changes impact behaviour. I found that the general anesthetic etomidate enhanced a tonic inhibitory conductance generated by α5GABAARs, and this action correlated with an impairment of long-term potentiation (LTP) and hippocampus-dependent memory performance for fear-associated memory and spatial navigation. Mice with a genetic deletion of the α5 subunit gene (Gabra5–/–) were resistant to the LTP- and memory-impairing effects of etomidate. Additionally, the LTP- and memory-impairing effects of etomidate were rescued by pharmacologically inhibiting α5GABAARs. Genetic and pharmacological inhibition of α5GABAARs enhanced associative learning in trace fear but not contextual fear conditioning tasks. Interestingly, genetic deletion and pharmacological inhibition of α5GABAARs did not result in the common adverse side-effects associated with non-selective inhibition of GABAARs such as anxiogenesis or seizures. Further, I found that blocking the tonic inhibition generated by α5GABAARs lowered the threshold for LTP, such that lower stimulation frequencies enhanced LTP. Synaptic changes within this frequency band were modified independently of phasic GABAAR inhibition. Inhibiting the α5GABAAR-dependent membrane conductance was associated with an increase in the depolarizing envelope during 10 Hz stimulation. These experiments provide new insights into the in vitro and in vivo physiology of α5GABAARs and suggest that a tonic inhibition generated by α5GABAARs constrains learning and glutamate plasticity through regulation of the membrane’s electrical properties.

Synaptic plasticity, which is thought to represent the neuronal substrate for learning and memory is influenced by the degree of GABAergic inhibitory tone. In particular, γ-aminobutyric acid subtype A receptors (GABAARs), which mediate the majority of inhibitory neurotransmission in the mammalian brain regulate learning and plasticity. In these studies I examined a subpopulation of α5 subunit-containing GABAA receptors (α5GABAARs), which are preferentially expressed in the hippocampus, to determine whether they have a specific role in memory processes. I hypothesized that α5GABAAR-activity constrains hippocampus-dependent learning and CA1 synaptic plasticity. The main research objective of this thesis was to investigate the electrophysiological changes within the hippocampus that accompany genetic and pharmacological targeting of α5GABAARs and how these changes impact behaviour. I found that the general anesthetic etomidate enhanced a tonic inhibitory conductance generated by α5GABAARs, and this action correlated with an impairment of long-term potentiation (LTP) and hippocampus-dependent memory performance for fear-associated memory and spatial navigation. Mice with a genetic deletion of the α5 subunit gene (Gabra5–/–) were resistant to the LTP- and memory-impairing effects of etomidate. Additionally, the LTP- and memory-impairing effects of etomidate were rescued by pharmacologically inhibiting α5GABAARs. Genetic and pharmacological inhibition of α5GABAARs enhanced associative learning in trace fear but not contextual fear conditioning tasks. Interestingly, genetic deletion and pharmacological inhibition of α5GABAARs did not result in the common adverse side-effects associated with non-selective inhibition of GABAARs such as anxiogenesis or seizures. Further, I found that blocking the tonic inhibition generated by α5GABAARs lowered the threshold for LTP, such that lower stimulation frequencies enhanced LTP. Synaptic changes within this frequency band were modified independently of phasic GABAAR inhibition. Inhibiting the α5GABAAR-dependent membrane conductance was associated with an increase in the depolarizing envelope during 10 Hz stimulation. These experiments provide new insights into the in vitro and in vivo physiology of α5GABAARs and suggest that a tonic inhibition generated by α5GABAARs constrains learning and glutamate plasticity through regulation of the membrane’s electrical properties.

Dissertation (Ph.D.).--University of Texas Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences at San Antonio, 2007. / Vita. Includes bibliographical references.

Preplacodal ectoderm (PPE) is a contigous horse-shoe shaped domain that enwraps the anterior neural plate towards the end of gastrulation and eventally resolves into a number of focal epithelial thickenings called placodes. These placodes together with Neural Crest (NC), contributes to the peripheral nervous system in vertebrates. PPE and NC arise at the neural-non neural interface by distinct mechanisms during development. However, a general idea in the field was that a Bmp signaling gradient specifies different ectodermal fates: high Bmp levels specify epidermis, intermediate levels PPE and NC and no Bmp signaling is required for neural fate specification. We showed that while NC responds to intermediate levels of Bmp signals, PPE is specified by a distinct mechanism that involves a two step model for PPE specification. In the first step, Bmp is positively required to activate four competence factors, tfap2a, tfap2c, foxi1 and gata3 throughout the ventral ectoderm and renders this domain competent to respond to inductive factors. In the second step, inductive factors Fgf and Bmp antagonists act to completely block all Bmp signaling to specify PPE at neural-non neural interface. These Bmp-activated competence factors do not need Bmp for subsequent maintenance because they positively cross-regulate and autoregulate each other’s expression forming a gene regulatory network. This network is sufficient to rescue both PPE and NC in the complete absence of Bmp. The subsequent resolution of PPE into discerte placodal thickenings was hypothesized to involve localized migration of placodal progenitors and one of the molecules that could play an important role during cell migration was extracellular matrix binding molecule, integrin alpha 5 (itga5) because it was expressed at the right time and place. Knockdown of itga5 results in disorganised trigeminal, epibranchial ganglia and smaller otic placodes. Tracing the cell trajectories of placodal progenitors revealed that cells failed to migrate directionally. Additionally, we observed elevated levels of cell death in itga5 morphants which could be rescued by overexpression of Fgf ligands suggesting that Itga5 and Fgf pathways cooperate during placodal development. All together, this dissertation reveals novel genetic mechanisms that regulate placodal development from late-blastula to mid-somitogenesis stages.

Spatial navigation in humans correlates with activity of cells in hippocampus that respond when we traverse specific locations in our environment. Hippocampal pyramidal cells in rodents called "place cells" may contribute to episodic memory by encoding location in physical space. Place cells display plasticity by "remapping" or altering their firing rates and patterns of activity in response to changes in spatial environment. Impaired remapping may underlie age-related deficits in spatial memory tasks. Using in vivo high-density electrophysiology to record place cell activity in awake, behaving rats, we tested the hypothesis that CA3 neuron hyperactivity in aged animals could be normalized by pharmacotherapy. Results show that acute, systemic administration of low dose levetiracetam and sodium valproate ameliorates deficits in the aged hippocampal network by reducing firing rates, decreasing place field area, and increasing the spatial selectivity of CA3 place cells. We then tested the hypothesis that place cell activity, field area, and spatial selectivity may be an indicator for therapeutic enhancement of spatial memory in young adult rats. The results demonstrate that α5IA enhances hippocampal-dependent spatial memory as measured by the location novelty recognition task in rats, consistent with the previously established action of α5IA as an enhancer of spatial memory in the water maze test. Electrophysiological recordings on the same animals carried out in parallel demonstrate that α5IA increases place cell firing rates, reduces field area, and increases spatial selectivity. Together, these results suggest that reducing place field area and enhancing spatial selectivity correlate with the age-independent therapeutic improvement of spatial memory. The increase in place cell firing rates by α5IA likely results from its known action as a negative allosteric modulator of α5-subunit-containing receptors (α), which are located extrasynaptically at the base of dendritic spines on CA1 and CA3 pyramidal cells. Thus, to potentially target extrasynaptic tonic inhibition in the hippocampus, we synthesized and validated two α specific miRNAs as a platform for future attempts to improve spatial memory in young adult and aging animals via molecular genetics.

L'expression de l'intégrine a5pl et celle de son ligand, la fibronectine (FN), est augmentée au tout début de la cicatrisation cornéenne afin de favoriser la migration des cellules épithéliales. Toutefois, l'expression du collagène de type IV (CIV) et de la laminine (LM), deux composantes majeures de la membrane basale, est diminuée temporairement durant ce processus. Notre laboratoire étudie le promoteur a5 afin de déterminer quels sont les mécanismes responsables de l'augmentation de l'expression de l'intégrine a5(31 dans le contexte de la cicatrisation cornéenne. Jusqu'à maintenant, nous avions démontré que la sous-unité a5 était à la fois modulée par la FN et la densité cellulaire. Ces effets étaient, en partie, causés par des modifications du facteur de transcription Spl (±spécifie protein one¿), un régulateur positif de la transcription du gène a5. Sur le promoteur a5, nous avons identifié un site de liaison potentiel pour le facteur de transcription NFI (±nuclear factor one¿) à proximité de celui des sites Spl et AP-1 (±activator protein one¿) préalablement identifiés. Le premier objectif de cette thèse fut de déterminer l'influence de chacun de ces facteurs sur l'activité du promoteur a5. Le second objectif fut de définir l'influence de la densité cellulaire sur les facteurs de transcription AP-1, Spl et NFI. Finalement, le troisième objectif visait à déterminer l'influence du CIV et de la LM sur l'expression d'a5. Nous avons démontré que les facteurs de transcription AP-1, Spl et NFI modulent l'activité basale du promoteur a5. Nous avons aussi démontré que la densité cellulaire induit des modifications des propriétés des facteurs de transcription AP-1 et NFI. Par la suite, nous avons démontré que la FN, le CIV et la LM influencent individuellement l'expression de la sous-unité a5. Nous avons ensuite démontré que ces influences sont, en partie, causées par des modifications des facteurs de transcription Spl, AP-1 ainsi que NFI. Ainsi, l'expression de la sous-unité a5 s'avère modulée par la densité cellulaire et par des protéines de la matrice extracellulaire (MEC) impliquées dans la cicatrisation cornéenne. Ces influences résultent de modifications dans les propriétés ou les niveaux endogènes des facteurs de transcription AP-1, Spl et NFI.

Dès les premières heures suivant une lésion à l’épithélium cornéen, d’importantes quantités de fibronectine (FN) sont sécrétées dans la membrane basale, tandis que l’expression des laminines (LMs) et des collagènes (principalement le type IV) diminue temporairement pour réapparaitre une fois la lésion recouverte. L’intégrine α5β1 joue un rôle majeur dans la cicatrisation cornéenne en favorisant l’adhésion et la migration des cellules épithéliales de cornées (CEC) sur la matrice temporaire de FN. Notre laboratoire étudie la modulation d’expression du gène codant pour la sous-unité α5 par les composantes de la matrice extracellulaire (MEC) durant la cicatrisation de l’épithélium cornéen. Des travaux antérieurs réalisés dans notre laboratoire ont permis de démontrer que la FN exerce une influence positive sur l’activité transcriptionnelle du promoteur du gène α5, tandis que la LM exerce une influence négative dans des CEC de lapins. Toutefois, l’étude des influences individuelles des collagènes ou des effets combinés des matrices complexes n’avait jamais été entreprise à ce jour. Les travaux présentés dans cette thèse ont permis de démontrer que les matrices extracellulaires complexes, composées de FN et de différents types de collagènes, exercent une influence positive sur l’expression du gène α5 dans des CEC humaines. Ces influences de la MEC résultent de modifications dans l’expression et les activités de liaison à l’ADN des facteurs de transcription NFI, Sp1, AP-1 et Pax-6. À l’inverse, les matrices simples de collagènes exercent une influence négative sur l’expression du gène α5 dans les CECs ce qui suggère qu’une des multiples actions des collagènes pourrait être de ralentir la migration et la prolifération des cellules épithéliales afin de permettre leur différenciation dans les couches supérieures de l’épithélium cornéen. Nous avons également démontré la présence d’une région distale conservée de 300 nucléotides située en amont des gènes codant pour les sous-unités d’intégrines α3, α5, α9 et αv. Cette région conservée porte plusieurs éléments de régulation (positifs et négatifs) qui contribuent à la modulation fine de l’expression du gène α5. Outre les gènes pour certaines intégrines, la MEC modifie profondément l’expression de plusieurs gènes codant, entre-autre, pour des métalloprotéinases matricielles (MMPs) et diverses composantes de la MEC. / Upon corneal injury, it is the massive secretion of fibronectin (FN) that characterizes the very first changes occurring in the basement membrane (BM) while in the meantime laminin (LM) and collagens (mostly type IV) temporarily disappear and then sequentially reappear once the denuded corneal area is completely covered. The FN binding integrin α5β1 plays a major role in corneal wound healing by promoting epithelial cell adhesion and migration over the temporary FN matrix. Over the past few years, our laboratory investigated the mechanisms by which the extracellular matrix (ECM) components may alter the expression of the α5 integrin subunit gene during corneal wound healing. While FN was found to positively regulate the expression of the α5 gene promoter, LM surprisingly repressed its transcription in rabbit corneal epithelial cells. However, the individual influences of collagens, or the combinatorial influence of a more complex tissue-engineered ECM had yet to be determined. In this thesis, we demonstrated that the reconstructed ECM, which is enriched in several types of collagens and FN, exerts a positive influence on the expression of the α5 gene in human corneal epithelial cells as a result of alterations in the expression and DNA binding of the transcription factors NFI, Sp1, AP-1 and Pax-6. On the other hand, collagens most usually acted negatively on the expression of the α5 integrin gene in corneal epithelial cells (CECs). One can then speculate that a particularly important function of the corneal BM collagens would consist to inform CECs that cell migration is no longer required, allowing them to differentiate vertically into suprabasal epithelial cells. We also demonstrated that a 300 bp conserved 5’-distal region present in the α3, α5, α9 and αv integrin subunit gene promoter sequences contains several target sites for positive and negative transcription factors that may prove important for fine-tuned regulation of α5 gene transcription. In addition, the ECM components also cause important changes in the expression of other genes, such as those encoding matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and various ECM components.