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Predator avoidance behaviors are a critical defense mechanism that can increase the chances of survival for potential prey species. We tested the avoidance behavior of the freshwater amphipod, Gammerus sp., under two different chemical predation cues. The first was the presence of kairomone, which was derived from a species of fish, Gambusia affinis, that was fed a diet exclusively of amphipods. The second predation cue was potential alarm cue derived from macerated conspecific amphipods from the same population as the test species. Response variables included time spent moving after the introduction to the signal as well as the time spent in refuge. Movement of amphipods significantly decreased and time spent in refuge significantly increased when amphipods were exposed to alarm cue as compared to control organisms that received no exposure to predation cues. Exposure to the fish kairomone treatments significantly increased time spent in the refuge but did not significantly influence time spent moving during the trials. These results suggest that amphipods exhibit predator avoidance behavior primarily when there is evidence that an attack has occurred (evidenced by the death of conspecifics within the population), but will also demonstrate avoidance behaviors to a lesser degree when a predator is detected.

<p>Abstract</p><p>In Oneida Lake, New York, USA, three species of amphipods are present: Hyalella azteca is native, Gammarus fasciatus is invasive and was first observed sometime before 1940 and Echinogammarus ischnus was introduced in 2001 in shallow water. The purpose of this study was to investigate the spatial and temporal abundance of amphipods in Oneida Lake. In the Great Lakes, the invasive E. ischnus has outcompeted G. fasciatus and this was also expected to be occur in Oneida Lake. Quantitative field sampling of transects that extended from the shore to deeper water (3.8 m) at six sites around Oneida Lake showed that the abundance of all amphipod species had a positive correlation to the abundance of zebra mussels (Dreissena polymorpha). Echinogammarus ischnus were observed at low densities (mean, 18 no./m2) in shallow water (<0.6 m) areas with cobbles covered with zebra mussels, whereas just a few individuals were found in deep water. At all depths, G. fasciatus were found at high densities (mean 950 no./m2), and H. azteca were present at low densities (mean 77 no./m2). The main factor limiting E. ischnus and its coexistence with G. fasciatus is the lack of favourable habitat i.e. too few cobble areas and too much Cladophora spp. and other macrophyte species growing in the lake. In addition, exposure of shallow water habitats every fall and winter as a consequence of water level manipulations produces unfavorable habitat for E. ischnus.</p> / <p>Sammanfattning</p><p>I sjön Oneida Lake, New York, USA, finns tre arter av märlkräftor (Amphipoda): Hyalella azteca är naturligt förekommande i sjön, Gammarus fasciatus hittades för första gången någon gång före år 1940 och Echinogammarus ischnus hittades för första gången 2001 på grunt vatten. Syftet med studien var att undersöka märlkräftornas utbredning och abundans över tid i Oneida Lake. I de Stora sjöarna (the Great Lakes) i Nordamerika har den invaderande E. ischnus konkurrerat ut G. fasciatus och samma sak förväntades att finna i Oneida Lake. I fält togs kvantitativa stickprover i transekter från strandlinjen och ut till djupt vatten (3,8 m), dessa visade att samtliga märlkräftsarter hade en positiv abundans korrelation med zebra musslor (Dreissena polymorpha). E. ischnus hittades i låga densiteter (medel 18 st/m2) på stenar täckta med zebra musslor på grunt vatten (<0,6 m) och endast ett fåtal individer hittades på djupt vatten. I Oneida Lake på alla djup hittades G. fasciatus i höga densiteter (medel 950 st/m2) medan H. azteca endast fanns i låga densiteter (medel 77 st/m2). Största anledningen till E. ischnus begränsning till samexistens med G. fasciatus är avsaknaden av gynnade habitat i sjön, det vill säga för få områden med stenar, samt att det växer för mycket alger (Cladophora spp.) och andra växter i sjön vilket missgynnar E. ischnus. Även vattennivåreglering under höst och vinter är ogynnsam för E. ischnus, då habitat på grunt vatten blir exponerande.</p>

Abstract In Oneida Lake, New York, USA, three species of amphipods are present: Hyalella azteca is native, Gammarus fasciatus is invasive and was first observed sometime before 1940 and Echinogammarus ischnus was introduced in 2001 in shallow water. The purpose of this study was to investigate the spatial and temporal abundance of amphipods in Oneida Lake. In the Great Lakes, the invasive E. ischnus has outcompeted G. fasciatus and this was also expected to be occur in Oneida Lake. Quantitative field sampling of transects that extended from the shore to deeper water (3.8 m) at six sites around Oneida Lake showed that the abundance of all amphipod species had a positive correlation to the abundance of zebra mussels (Dreissena polymorpha). Echinogammarus ischnus were observed at low densities (mean, 18 no./m2) in shallow water (&lt;0.6 m) areas with cobbles covered with zebra mussels, whereas just a few individuals were found in deep water. At all depths, G. fasciatus were found at high densities (mean 950 no./m2), and H. azteca were present at low densities (mean 77 no./m2). The main factor limiting E. ischnus and its coexistence with G. fasciatus is the lack of favourable habitat i.e. too few cobble areas and too much Cladophora spp. and other macrophyte species growing in the lake. In addition, exposure of shallow water habitats every fall and winter as a consequence of water level manipulations produces unfavorable habitat for E. ischnus. / Sammanfattning I sjön Oneida Lake, New York, USA, finns tre arter av märlkräftor (Amphipoda): Hyalella azteca är naturligt förekommande i sjön, Gammarus fasciatus hittades för första gången någon gång före år 1940 och Echinogammarus ischnus hittades för första gången 2001 på grunt vatten. Syftet med studien var att undersöka märlkräftornas utbredning och abundans över tid i Oneida Lake. I de Stora sjöarna (the Great Lakes) i Nordamerika har den invaderande E. ischnus konkurrerat ut G. fasciatus och samma sak förväntades att finna i Oneida Lake. I fält togs kvantitativa stickprover i transekter från strandlinjen och ut till djupt vatten (3,8 m), dessa visade att samtliga märlkräftsarter hade en positiv abundans korrelation med zebra musslor (Dreissena polymorpha). E. ischnus hittades i låga densiteter (medel 18 st/m2) på stenar täckta med zebra musslor på grunt vatten (&lt;0,6 m) och endast ett fåtal individer hittades på djupt vatten. I Oneida Lake på alla djup hittades G. fasciatus i höga densiteter (medel 950 st/m2) medan H. azteca endast fanns i låga densiteter (medel 77 st/m2). Största anledningen till E. ischnus begränsning till samexistens med G. fasciatus är avsaknaden av gynnade habitat i sjön, det vill säga för få områden med stenar, samt att det växer för mycket alger (Cladophora spp.) och andra växter i sjön vilket missgynnar E. ischnus. Även vattennivåreglering under höst och vinter är ogynnsam för E. ischnus, då habitat på grunt vatten blir exponerande.

Apparent long-term declines of white-winged and surf scoter (<i>Melanitta fusca </i> and <i>M. perspicillata</i>) populations in the northern boreal forest have raised concern for these sea duck species. Reasons for population declines are not well understood but some evidence suggests that factors associated with events on the breeding grounds may be responsible. Breeding ground changes could adversely affect abiotic or biotic characteristics of upland or wetland habitats or key food sources for breeding females or ducklings, which in turn may lower productivity or recruitment. Like most boreal-nesting ducks, virtually nothing is known about wetland habitat preferences of scoters. Determining habitat features that scoters need to breed successfully, and how habitat changes in the boreal forest affect scoters, is an important step in understanding their ecology and developing conservation initiatives. Thus, my overall goal was to look for evidence of habitat selection in scoters at two spatial scales by characterizing biotic and abiotic features of areas used by scoter pairs and broods, and comparing these features with those of areas not used by scoters. Habitat characteristics and scoter use of wetlands in recently burned forest was also contrasted with unburned forest to determine whether habitat change caused by fire could affect patterns of habitat use by scoters.<p> I used remote sensing data as a tool to delineate coarse-scale patterns of habitat use by scoter pairs and broods. Results indicate that although scoters may not settle on wetlands in areas dominated by burned vegetation two years following the fire, three years after the fire I found no difference in scoter pair or brood use between wetlands in burned and unburned upland. I found that surf and white-winged scoter pairs often co-occurred on wetlands. I was unable to find any evidence to support the prediction that scoters prefer wetlands with irregular shorelines that might enhance pair isolation and offer greater protection to ducklings from severe winds and wave action. <p> Based on fine-scale wetland habitat characteristics, scoter pairs and broods used wetlands with more abundant food, a finding that is consistent with many other waterfowl studies. However, unlike some previous waterfowl studies, I did not find a consistent correlation between total phosphorus levels and amphipod abundance or wetland use by scoters. Very high total nitrogen to total phosphorus ratios in sampled wetlands lead me to speculate that wetlands in my study area may be phosphorus limited. I did not detect a difference in fine-scale features of wetlands surrounded by burned versus unburned vegetation. This study of scoters in the northern boreal forest was among the first to determine why scoters use specific wetlands or areas and not others.

Dietary cadmium (Cd) can contribute significantly to chronic bioaccumulation and toxicity in aquatic organisms. This contribution needs to be quantified so that the relative importance of waterborne and dietary cadmium exposure pathways can be incorporated into protective water quality guidelines and ecological risk assessments. In this research, the contribution of dietary Cd from a natural periphyton diet to chronic (28 d) bioaccumulation and toxicity in the freshwater amphipod Hyalella azteca was quantified using a mechanistically-based saturation bioaccumulation model. Factors that influence dietary Cd bioavailability such as food type, food form, dietary Cd speciation and concentration were investigated. Assimilation efficiency, ingestion rate and the excretion rate constant of dietary Cd were determined for each of these factors. Food nutrition was also considered. Lastly, model predictions of Cd bioaccumulation and toxicity were compared to measurements of tissue concentration and survival when H. azteca were exposed to metal contaminated water and periphyton collected from lakes in the metal mining region of Rouyn-Noranda, Quebec, Canada. In 28 d laboratory experiments where H. azteca bioaccumulated Cd from water and food, dietary Cd was estimated to contribute markedly (21 – 94 %) to bioaccumulated Cd in H. azteca. Effects on chronic survival were best predicted from body concentration rather than water or food exposure concentration. Assimilation efficiency of dietary Cd differed with food type likely as a result of Cd speciation, but did not differ with Cd concentration or food form. Ingestion rate differed with food form while excretion rate constants were unaffected by dietary Cd bioavailability. Predictions of chronic Cd bioaccumulation in H. azteca exposed to field contaminated samples were robust, however the model did not account for effects of water chemistry on Cd bioaccumulation and is thus constrained in its application. Predictions of chronic survival were over-estimated likely due to the additional toxicity caused by the low nutritional quality of the field contaminated periphyton. This research demonstrated that both waterborne and dietary Cd need to be considered in models that assess chronic risk of exposure and effects to H. azteca.

Apparent long-term declines of white-winged and surf scoter (<i>Melanitta fusca </i> and <i>M. perspicillata</i>) populations in the northern boreal forest have raised concern for these sea duck species. Reasons for population declines are not well understood but some evidence suggests that factors associated with events on the breeding grounds may be responsible. Breeding ground changes could adversely affect abiotic or biotic characteristics of upland or wetland habitats or key food sources for breeding females or ducklings, which in turn may lower productivity or recruitment. Like most boreal-nesting ducks, virtually nothing is known about wetland habitat preferences of scoters. Determining habitat features that scoters need to breed successfully, and how habitat changes in the boreal forest affect scoters, is an important step in understanding their ecology and developing conservation initiatives. Thus, my overall goal was to look for evidence of habitat selection in scoters at two spatial scales by characterizing biotic and abiotic features of areas used by scoter pairs and broods, and comparing these features with those of areas not used by scoters. Habitat characteristics and scoter use of wetlands in recently burned forest was also contrasted with unburned forest to determine whether habitat change caused by fire could affect patterns of habitat use by scoters.<p> I used remote sensing data as a tool to delineate coarse-scale patterns of habitat use by scoter pairs and broods. Results indicate that although scoters may not settle on wetlands in areas dominated by burned vegetation two years following the fire, three years after the fire I found no difference in scoter pair or brood use between wetlands in burned and unburned upland. I found that surf and white-winged scoter pairs often co-occurred on wetlands. I was unable to find any evidence to support the prediction that scoters prefer wetlands with irregular shorelines that might enhance pair isolation and offer greater protection to ducklings from severe winds and wave action. <p> Based on fine-scale wetland habitat characteristics, scoter pairs and broods used wetlands with more abundant food, a finding that is consistent with many other waterfowl studies. However, unlike some previous waterfowl studies, I did not find a consistent correlation between total phosphorus levels and amphipod abundance or wetland use by scoters. Very high total nitrogen to total phosphorus ratios in sampled wetlands lead me to speculate that wetlands in my study area may be phosphorus limited. I did not detect a difference in fine-scale features of wetlands surrounded by burned versus unburned vegetation. This study of scoters in the northern boreal forest was among the first to determine why scoters use specific wetlands or areas and not others.