Protected areas should be reviewed under expected future climate conditions so that conservation and expansion strategies can be developed appropriately. An assessment of the vulnerability of protected areas to climate change is a necessary step in developing such strategies. Indeed, a vulnerability assessment is an important step in developing adaptation strategies for conservation. This is important as substantial climate change has already been experienced at a park level in South Africa. The aim of this study was to develop a method for assessing the relative vulnerability of protected areas to climate change and to apply this to South Africa’s 19 national parks. The method includes identifying and quantifying potential impacts of climate change on each focal protected area, carried out by developing and/or using projections for species, ecosystems, infrastructure, tourism and neighbouring communities. Potential impacts were combined with measures of each park’s adaptive capacity to develop an overall park vulnerability score. This study has taken vulnerability assessment at a protected area level further than has been attempted before by assessing not only the biophysical but also the socioeconomic impacts of climate change on a protected area, quantifying the potential changes (potential impacts) and developing a relative index. The results indicate that climate change has the potential to contribute significantly to the threats faced by South Africa’s national parks. Apart from a potentially devastating impact on species and ecosystems, the effects on tourism demand, community relations and infrastructure are of concern. Not surprisingly, the most vulnerable parks are largely coastal, where tourist infrastructure is at risk of both flooding and sea-level rise, and there are higher population densities. Furthermore, coastal ecosystems are expected to transform significantly which will have consequences for range-restricted species. Management strategies need to take heed of the magnitude of potential impacts identified in this study and work towards developing adaptation pathways.

This dissertation assesses the extent to which data from the Climatological Database for the World's Oceans (CLIWOC) reflect newly digitized historical wind data captured at the Royal Astronomical Observatory (RAO) in Cape Town, South Africa from 1834-1854. This follows the historical precipitation reconstructions for Southern Africa by Hannaford et al. (2015), using wind data from the CLIWOC database. This project also forms part of a bigger project that is recovering and digitising historical instrumental meteorological data for Southern Africa that have never been analysed before. For Southern Africa, the opportunity to compare historical instrumental data seldom arises due to the paucity of reliable data. However, there is an opportunity to analyse and compare two different wind data sources for a twenty-one year cross over period for south western Africa. Wind, as an indicator of atmospheric conditions, has not been assessed extensively in South African, therefore this project fills an academic gap in historical climatology for the region, and provides newly digitised historical data. Digitisation and pre-processing steps ensure that the RAO dataset is comparable to the CLIWOC dataset. This is done by replicating wind direction and speed measurement conversions and formatting (Garcia-Herrera et al., 2005), and by mirroring the available time steps of data in each dataset (eliminating data were the other dataset has erroneous or missing data). Spatially scattered data recorded over the sea compared to data recorded at a fixed position introduces inherent limitations, error and noise into the data comparison. Therefore, to eliminate as many uncertainties as possible and minimise the noise in the data, the CLIWOC data are refined further by a) a single observation per day, b) separating three regions of differing seasonal synoptic air flow regimes (west coast, south west peninsula and south coast) and c) all analyses based on seasonally grouped data. Temporal, spatial and vector relationships are established for each season using scatter plot graphs and Pearson correlations. The different relationships between the data are derived from corresponding wind data (i.e. data of the same day and time), in each dataset for wind speed and wind direction separately. No significant correlation (all p values>0.05) or signal is evident over time, or as the difference in distance changes. However, seasonality is represented consistently in the wind vector distribution heat maps. Significant findings include the observations of anomalous north westerly winds in summer at the RAO, where the CLIWOC data did not pick up similar data for the corresponding region on the west coast. Historical wind data used herein prove to be reliable by the expected seasonal synoptic flow patterns and characteristics seen in each study region. There is no correlation between the datasets over time and space and the data do not present any clear signals or return events over time. Although corresponding data do not show any correlations, there are typical synoptic flow regimes in each study region which prove that wind data was recorded correctly. Therefore, the datasets are mutually exclusive, but accurate in their intrinsic value. It is only the anomalous summer north westerlies at the RAO which question the reliability of the data, as the same wind regimes were not identifiable in the corresponding CLIWOC data. This anomaly was noted but not studied further. This project highlights the major inconsistencies and limitations in the CLIWOC data. Researchers in the future should use CLIWOC data appropriately to suit the research question and be aware of the inconsistencies that may introduce noise.

Much of current research on ethical consumption biases the North - South relationship of Northern consumers being considered ethical based on their purchasing of items from Southern producers. This establishes the dominant perspective of ethics needing to be expressed toward the distant other and to be based in a specific object, often typified by Fair Trade. These conditions of ethics have led to the assumption that Southern consumers lack ethics in their consumption. Thus this research seeks to expand the current understanding of ethical consumption to include ethics at home and ethics of care, as well as expand the demographic of ethical consumption studies to include Southern consumers. The aim of this research is to add to the developing understanding of Southern ethical consumption through the exploration of ethics in grocery shopping among students. Students from various universities in the Cape Town area were observed while grocery shopping and interviewed about their shopping habits and their thoughts on ethics and values, particularly in terms of consumption and food. Twenty - eight students were interviewed, and of those, 23 were also observed shopping. At the conclusion of this study, it is evident that students, as Southern consumers, do express ethical consideration in their consumption habits. This is based on both perspectives of ethical goods and ethical practices. However, they are more apt to act on the ethics of care at home than on the ethics of care at a distance. The strongest trends among students are thrift, care at home and care for self, as well as a significant draw toward s shopping local and supporting local producers based in their communities and nationally. The implications of this research are that it adds to the literature through its theorization within the Global South, its focus on ethical consumption as a practice instead of solely object - based and the discussion of students as a research demographic. Overall, this study demonstrates how Southern consumers do express ethics in their shopping choices particularly through care at home.

Climate change is projected to have continued and globally severe environmental, economic and socioeconomic effects. These effects are forecast to be more severe in the agriculture sector, considering that it is one of the most sensitive industries to climate change. Studies from the Mozambican National Institute for Disaster Management (INGC) suggest that Mozambique is among the countries highly vulnerable to climate change due to its geographical location, in the coastal zone. In addition, the majority of its population is entirely dependent on agriculture activities for food and income. For example, in the Chókwe district, tomato production plays a key role in farmers' livelihood; however, this district is prone to weather variability and climate stresses, affecting the region's agricultural performance and making farmers' livelihood even more precarious. There is indeed limited information on this vulnerability, how farmers cope with the risks as well as their need to manage these stresses. The study conducted includes a survey of 43 farmer households in two villages of Chókwe: Massavasse and Muianga. The study then compares farmers' perceived effects of climate variability with actual climate data observed between 1980 and 2012. Meteorological data was analyzed using R software.

Climate change and variability are predicted to threaten agricultural production in Southern Africa. For example, Zambia's agriculture remains vulnerable to climate change and variability due to the small-scale farmers' dependence on rain-fed agriculture. Some studies in Zambia have shown the quantitative negative impacts of climate variability on agriculture; however, there is limited knowledge on how farmers perceive the impacts and adapt their agricultural systems. To fill in the knowledge gap mentioned above, the aim of the present study was to evaluate farmers' observations of climate variability impacts and their responses. The study then evaluates the integration of farmers' climate variability observations and adaptation strategies into local district plans. Such integration is deemed critical to ensure agricultural strategies promoted by extension officers are locally relevant and are adopted by the farmers. The study is based on semi-structured interviews and literature review. Thirty-one (31) farmers from Mwembeshi, Chilanga District, Zambia, participated in the study. The findings of the survey indicate that farmers in Mwembeshi are aware of their vulnerability to climate variability impacts. As a result of the observed impacts, they have developed several adaptation strategies. Through this study, extension agents were also interviewed in order find out what adaptation strategies are promoted to the farmers. The findings of the research indicate agricultural extension agents follow national agricultural adaptation strategies (top-down approach). As a result, local agricultural development plans would not specifically integrate/respond to climate variations impacts observed by the farmers. In order to engage local farmer impacts of the climate variability and their adaptation strategies into the local plans, the research suggests a more flexible (or bottom-up) approach to local development planning. Such an approach would allow the integration of local farmer observations of climate variability and their adaptation strategies into district plans. The study also found that extension agents have limited knowledge of climate variability and change, which negatively affects knowledge transfer to farmers on the subject. Therefore, training the extension officers in the subject would most likely increase farmers' knowledge on climate variability and adaptation decision.

The majority of informal settlements in South Africa do not have access to reliable, safe, and clean energy. Infrastructural constraints, poor service delivery, the inapt application of policy, and the financial constraints of those living in informal settlements all contribute towards this problem of energy poverty. This dissertation argues that low carbon energy transitions, such as solar home systems, are a viable means for overcoming issues of energy poverty in informal settlements. This dissertation examines the role of urban experimentation in implementing low carbon energy transitions within informal settlements in South Africa, through exploring interactions between policy, technology and justice. The iShack Project (improved Shack) is used as a case study, to identify, analyse, and discuss the ways in which solar home systems have resulted in social and financial changes amongst the residents in Enkanini, Stellenbosch. These relate to changing fuel use patterns, reducing shack fire risk and addressing issues of access and affordability. Multilevel perspective (MLP) and the political ecology approach are the two analytical tools used to discuss the broader conditions that give rise to transitions, as well as providing a more in-depth look at the experiences of those making up the 'social' aspect of socio-technical transitions. These analytical tools informed a series of interviews, which is the primary method through which data was gathered, by highlighting prominent components of agency and power - providing greater understanding of the lived realities of the Enkanini residents. The interviewing process provided an opportunity for residents of Enkanini to voice their opinions on this urban experiment and discuss the impact iShack has had on their lives. Photographs accompany many of the findings in this dissertation and provide a valuable lens through which the lived reality of the Enkanini residents can be more accurately represented. Using the case study of the iShack Project in Enkanini, the findings of this dissertation highlight that policy, technology and justice come to positively reinforce one another in addressing the issue of energy poverty in South Africa. For example, the granting of the Free Basic Electricity (FBE) subsidy to the iShack Project has made it possible for the intermediary to address justice issues, such as the poor being able to access and afford reliable, safe, and clean electricity. Furthermore, iShack's technological innovations, such as "Flash" and the "Flash wallet" have brought about foundational changes in some values, goals, operational procedures and decision-making processes taking place in the community - especially around the notion of monetary savings. This also points to the fact that these technological innovations are physical manifestations of policy itself. The findings show that low carbon energy transitions can be a viable means of overcoming energy poverty in informal settlements and addressing issues of access and affordability for the poor. However, local government plays an important role in being able to adapt local policy in such a way that it creates an enabling environment for an intermediary to be supported or strengthened in this.

This work explores the narratives associated with the benefits of sustainable urban agriculture areas in terms of adaptation to climate change in the Cape Town Metropolitan Area, South Africa. Urbanization and climate change are stressing urban areas in developing countries. Therefore, finding a development path towards "sustainable adaptation" remains a critical matter for humanity. Adaptation is sustainable only if it takes into consideration climate risks, while maximizing both social justice and environmental integrity. Urban agriculture is defined in this dissertation as the urban and peri-urban locations where agricultural practices, either the production of crops, livestock, or fish, utilize urban resources for the purpose of selling and consuming these goods produced locally, supporting the urban economy and providing a supply of food for urban citizens. Sustainable urban agriculture encompasses urban agricultural areas operating towards the satisfaction of human food, the preservation of environmental resources, the economic viability of agriculture and the enhancement of the quality of life of farmers, farm workers, and society. This research reviews the practices and views of urban agriculture stakeholders in Cape Town on sustainable urban agriculture to determine if the practices of urban agriculture could be a part of a sustainable adaptation strategy. The methods used to answer this question included a systematic review of studies on urban agriculture worldwide since 1980, and a review of the urban agriculture and adaptation to climate change policies which are implemented at the metropolitan level, all supported and tested through interviews with key informants. Non-Government Organization (NGO)-based community farming initiatives such as Oranjezicht City Farm, Abalimi Bezekhaya or the ERF 81, independent farmers, municipal and provincial government representatives were interviewed. A critical discourse analysis method was utilized to analyze the findings. The study found that the narratives at the metropolitan level, including the policies and the views of governmental representatives, remains focused on the food security contribution whereas the practitioners' narrative expressed an interest in the economic opportunities and social benefits that sustainable urban agriculture can bring, as stated by the literature on sustainable urban agriculture. The key practitioners and NGOs narratives suggest that sustainable urban agriculture is contributing to the adaptive capacity of the farmers as they are using practices such as permaculture or organic farming, which allow them to cope with the impacts of climate variability and climate change. If sustainable farming practices were emphasized instead of farming practices towards small-scale, home-based activity to improve households' food security, the adaptation framework at the municipal and provincial level would be aligned with practitioners and NGOs narratives and would contribute to the sustainable adaptation capacity of the city. The recent shift within the City of Cape Town towards the broad concept of resilience could bridge the gap between current policy and practices, and informants' narratives, but it remains too soon for this to be tested. This study concludes suggesting that the analysis of the informants' and literature's narratives on sustainable urban agriculture express potential to contribute to climate change adaptation and the reduction of vulnerability in Cape Town but alignment between policy and practitioners' needs, wants and actions needs to take place.

Microfinance organisations represent a potential opportunity to promote adaptation of smallholder farmers. Without access to credit, this group of farmers has few opportunities to invest in adequate technologies and practices required to respond to climate variability and change. In this context, this study explores how Microfinance Institutions (MFIs) can be capacitated in order to assist smallholder farmers to respond to climate change. The core objective of the study is to identify opportunities and needs to foster smallholders' adaptation through MFIs. The study is informed by a survey involving 13 MFIs operating in Southern Mozambique. This paper finds that although MFIs are aware that climate risks affect their services in regards to a wider rural economy, these organisations do not have explicit policies to deal with climate risks. It also finds that majority of MFIs' managers recognise the potential for mainstreaming climate variability and change into services they provide to smallholders. However, for MFIs to achieve this they will require training of agents in climate related knowledge and adaptation, better access to climate related information, assistance in aspects of planning taking into consideration climate related risks and clear understanding of the benefits of investing in adaptation.

Globally, agriculture is one of the most vulnerable sectors to climate change. Despite the high coping capacity of large-scale commercial agri-firms in South Africa, they are vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, particularly due to the semi-arid nature of the country and the frequency of droughts. Vulnerability at the farm-level has major implications for overall agri-supply chain resilience as the impact at the farm level is transmitted up and down the chain. Whilst large-scale commercial agrifirms are adapting autonomously some authors suggest that it won't be enough for them to manage the risks and impacts brought about by the expected rate of climate change. Enhancing the agri-firms' adaptive capacity to adapt proactively – in anticipation of climate change – could be essential to increase supply chain resilience and thus maintain economic development and safeguard employment in the agriculture sector in South Africa. The sustainable supply chain literature indicates that more powerful stakeholders, such as the retailers, have a bigger role to play up and down the chain. The retailer is in a strategic position to influence both supply and demand and thus have a powerful effect on the capacity of the agri-supply chain to proactively adapt to climate change. This study therefore aimed to look at the role of the retailer as an enabler to proactive adaptation at the farm-level for large-scale commercial agri-firms' in South Africa. The study used a qualitative research approach and looked at six agri-firms to gain a deeper understanding of the agri-firms perceptions of the retailer as an enabler and answered three objectives, i) to identify how the agri-firms were responding to climate risks, ii) to identify what barriers constrain proactive adaptation and iii) to explore what role the retailer could play in overcoming those specific barriers to proactive adaptation. The results of the study showed that the agri-firms' relatively high capacity to cope with climate variability, translated into incremental and system adaptation measures and included technological, land use management and financial insurance measures. These responses were, however, often reactive with few agri-firms regarding climate change as a high risk. Their key barriers to more proactive adaptation were: financial (e.g. cost-benefit), information (e.g. uncertainty around climate change impacts and projections), technological (e.g. inadequate research and development), organisational (shareholders only interested in short-term return on investments) and included constraints within the agri-supply chain (e.g. consumer demands for the perfect fruit). To overcome these barriers the respondents suggested a variety of measures that the retailer could do to enhance the adaptive capacity of agri-firms both directly (e.g. research at farm level, funding sustainability programs) and indirectly (e.g. influencing consumers, supporting technological development, supporting large scale research and influencing government policy). Further research on how the retailer perceives itself as an enabler (and whether its perceptions align with the agri-firms) would be necessary to ensure that shared value is created in response to shared risk.

"Zero emissions, zero poverty" has become an ambitious target to fight climate change and reduce poverty at the same time. In Kenya, eradication of extreme poverty through economic growth is one of the aims to be achieved by the Government of Kenya by 2030. Historically, economic growth has been directly linked to increased emissions. Poverty eradication through economic growth is proving to be challenging due to the fact that both developed and developing countries are expected to mitigate climate change through emissions reduction. Despite the challenge, Kenya has prioritised low carbon development as a means to eradicate poverty and mitigate climate change. "Clean coal" is one of the low carbon developments that the country has proposed. This study investigates how "clean coal" can assist Kenya to remain low carbon and develop properly. The analysis of the literature and qualitative data consists of three parts: the first analysis establishes the relationship between emissions and poverty in Kenya. The second part of the analysis assesses the literature on cost, environmental, social and economic consequences of clean coal as a low carbon development. The third component analyses the discourse of the actors involved in the decision-making process to understand the controversy for and against clean coal in Kenya. The study finds that there is possibly a link between poverty and emissions in Kenya and that improved socio-economic development results in increased emissions. The study also suggested that efforts to develop may be hindered by the increasing rate of inequality. The discourse analysis highlighted that Lamu Coal Power Plant may lead to economic development through employment and economic growth.; which comes at a high cost on environmental degradation (increased emissions and pollution) and increased deprivations (negatively impacted livelihood, health deterioration and displacement) that are likely to result in increasing poverty.