Esta tese almeja demonstrar que a prática do projeto e os modos cognitivos desdobrados nela podem contribuir de várias maneiras à pesquisa acadêmica em arquitetura. O projeto constitui o núcleo epistêmico da disciplina, aquilo que a define e identifica. A pesquisa em arquitetura, no entanto, se desenvolve fundamentalmente nas áreas histórico- crítica e tecnológica. A relação entre pesquisa e projeto é polêmica e sua articulação é ainda débil. A pesquisa em projetos é um campo em desenvolvimento. Neste trabalho, as causas desse atraso relativo são buscadas nos paradigmas epistemológicos subjacentes à estruturação das disciplinas e à formação das universidades. Ao mesmo tempo, encontram-se, nas abordagens emergentes do problema do conhecimento, novos olhares sobre as práticas e os conhecimentos incorporados à ação, que permitem repensar o projeto como produção de conhecimentos. A partir do estudo do modo de pensamento que se desdobra no processo do projeto e dos recursos cognitivos em jogo, são reconhecidos os seus potenciais específicos para a produção de conhecimentos e, portanto, as condições nas quais esses conhecimentos podem ser validados como contribuições para a pesquisa acadêmica. Finalmente, com a ideia de contribuir para o desenvolvimento da pesquisa no campo, são propostas algumas sugestões para seu fortalecimento e alguns parâmetros para a sua avaliação e legitimação. / This thesis aims to demonstrate that project practice and the cognitive modes deployed in it may contribute in several ways to academic research in architecture. Project is the epistemological core of architecture, the activity that defines and identifies it. It plays a fundamental role in the architect\'s formation and professional development. The project permeates all the working fields of the architect, as a way of relational thinking, multidimensional and complex. However, research in architecture has been mainly developed in the historical-critical and technological areas. The research in project is an emerging field in comparison to the production of knowledge in other areas and as such, it generates (causes) debate and controversy. This late arrival of the project to the academic research is explained in this paper, from the analysis of the epistemological paradigm which underlies the organization of knowledge in disciplinary fields and the academic structure of modern universities. Just as any professional practice, the project is in this system of ideas, only considered in its instrumental dimension as an application of knowledge generated in other fields. At the same time, new interpretations related to the value of the practices and the knowledge incorporated in the practical field are recognized in the emerging epistemological approaches, creating the opportunity of rethinking the project as a way of production of knowledge. Taking the study of the way of thinking and the cognitive resources involved in the project process as a starting point, its potential to the production of knowledge concerning architecture problems and the adequacy of the habitat in general are identified. Based on an extensive case study, from investigations to project exploration, the diverse ways in which this knowledge generated in the practice of the project can help in the academic research in architecture are analyzed. Finally, some strategies to promote the development of research in this field are proposed while evaluation criteria for the investigation projects works are drawn up. These criteria take into consideration the specificities of the discipline and the originality requirements simultaneously, precision and communicability that are essential for the academic knowledge to be accumulative.

by Siu Hon-chung. / Bibliography: leaves [63]-[64] / Thesis (M.B.A.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1985

The devastating effects that unsustainable design practices have on the natural world and other species with whom we share this planet have gained widespread awareness and are the driving force behind attempts to develop more sustainable design approaches. These efforts tend to focus on minimising the negative effects that design has on the natural world by reduced material and energy usage. However, the possibility that design may have an active role in mitigating the erosion of biodiversity has only entered the discussion in recent years and remains a marginal activity for design. Following an ongoing paradigm shift calling for the inclusion of a greater diversity of wild animals within human-dominated habitats (as a way of addressing both the erosion of biodiversity and humankind’s alienation from nature), this research proposes that there is a growing need for a design practice capable of responding to the needs of wild animals, while addressing questions of human-animal interaction. In this thesis, Multispecies Design is proposed and developed as a theoretical framework for supporting the shift to more biodiverse human habitats. The research addresses both the physical and socio-cultural requirements of such a shift. Three distinct views define this emerging design approach: recognising animals as clients of design, recognising human-animal interactions as designed experiences and the view of manmade systems as further extensions of ecological systems. The methodological implications of Multispecies Design have been explored in a case study design project concerned with the ecological enhancement of a coastal outfall pipe on a highly frequented beach in Cornwall, UK. The case study explored ways of designing to address the needs of both people and of wild animal species, as well as the interactions between the two groups. It focused on identifying and developing design approaches and tools for studying and representing wild animals in design projects to facilitate their integration into built environments. These tools were further refined in a series of workshops with design and art students carried out during the PhD research. The insights from the practical work, together with the theoretical framework developed alongside them, have led to the development of Principles of Multispecies Design and practical and conceptual Tools for Multispecies Design.

Contested, multi-faceted and conceptually confused, the relationship between decentralisation and education quality is not well understood. In this thesis, I use qualitative and quantitative methods to undertake an empirical exploration of decentralisation, education quality and the relationship between them in the context of Malawi. Through semi-structured interviews, I first consider how different actors within Malawi understand decentralisation and its implementation. I find that despite stalled democratic decentralisation, a new school-based management reform (the Primary School Improvement Programme) has gone ahead, financed mainly by international donors. Whilst the reform is welcomed by communities, it fails to counter the continued pressures to centralise power by Malawi’s ruling class. To understand if education decentralisation can lead to positive outcomes despite resistance to broader decentralisation reform, I investigate the effect of the Primary School Improvement Programme (PSIP) on pre-defined indicators of education quality. Exploiting its staggered national roll out and using standard difference-in-difference estimation, I find that the PSIP improves exam pass rates, reduces school dropout and increases the availability of toilets for girls. Put simply, these findings suggest that the PSIP ‘works’, although the reliability and validity of Malawi’s school census data is questionable. Finally, I turn to a deeper examination of education quality and its relationship with the PSIP through four case study schools. I find that the PSIP impact on schools is varied; while it creates the opportunity for schools and communities to work together towards school improvement, it also fosters suspicion about the management of school grants and tension over what to prioritise to improve education quality. Parents, community members and teachers are more likely to understand education quality in terms of quantity (classrooms, learning materials, numbers of students passing exams) while policymakers are more concerned with the acquisition of skills. This disconnect undermines the coherence and alignment of the reform. Making an original theoretical contribution, I show that there is a two-way relationship between decentralisation and education quality with implications for policy.

Evidence based practice (EBP) is an educational paradigm that espouses that clinical decision making should be made through the judicious and conscientious use of best evidence. EBP is predicated on a fundamental principle that therapeutic knowledge is appraised and applied into practice with the ethical imperative to use such knowledge for the good of patient care. Despite the ubiquitous nature of EBP in health care little is known about how physiotherapists use this clinical decision making process and it is not clear as to which theoretical frameworks of practice and knowledge paradigms underpin physiotherapists application of EBP. Phenomenology seeks to uncover the internal consciousness of phenomena by describing and exploring the lived experience and explores the relationship between what exists in one’s consciousness and what exists in the objective world. Descriptive phenomenology was used in this thesis to gain an in depth understanding of how twelve physiotherapists applied EBP in the real and complex world of clinical practice with the objective to explore their experiences and to understand the essence of its practice. The findings in this study revealed a complex picture comprising of three separate but interrelated themes. Physiotherapists had developed a personal theory of EBP (Theme 1) that guided their behaviour and comprised of an ontological, epistemological and methodological structure. This theoretical and practice framework was uniquely individual and required a complex set of cognitive processes that included knowledge identification, transformation, translation and implementation in specific client situations and practice contexts (Theme 2: translation into practice). To add to this complexity this framework took place within intrapersonal, social and cultural milieus which influenced behaviour (Theme 3). The study concludes by conceptualising the findings and experiences of physiotherapists into models that could be used to assist educationalists, practitioners and researchers to promote evidence based practice in a pragmatic way.

Esta tese almeja demonstrar que a prática do projeto e os modos cognitivos desdobrados nela podem contribuir de várias maneiras à pesquisa acadêmica em arquitetura. O projeto constitui o núcleo epistêmico da disciplina, aquilo que a define e identifica. A pesquisa em arquitetura, no entanto, se desenvolve fundamentalmente nas áreas histórico- crítica e tecnológica. A relação entre pesquisa e projeto é polêmica e sua articulação é ainda débil. A pesquisa em projetos é um campo em desenvolvimento. Neste trabalho, as causas desse atraso relativo são buscadas nos paradigmas epistemológicos subjacentes à estruturação das disciplinas e à formação das universidades. Ao mesmo tempo, encontram-se, nas abordagens emergentes do problema do conhecimento, novos olhares sobre as práticas e os conhecimentos incorporados à ação, que permitem repensar o projeto como produção de conhecimentos. A partir do estudo do modo de pensamento que se desdobra no processo do projeto e dos recursos cognitivos em jogo, são reconhecidos os seus potenciais específicos para a produção de conhecimentos e, portanto, as condições nas quais esses conhecimentos podem ser validados como contribuições para a pesquisa acadêmica. Finalmente, com a ideia de contribuir para o desenvolvimento da pesquisa no campo, são propostas algumas sugestões para seu fortalecimento e alguns parâmetros para a sua avaliação e legitimação. / This thesis aims to demonstrate that project practice and the cognitive modes deployed in it may contribute in several ways to academic research in architecture. Project is the epistemological core of architecture, the activity that defines and identifies it. It plays a fundamental role in the architect\'s formation and professional development. The project permeates all the working fields of the architect, as a way of relational thinking, multidimensional and complex. However, research in architecture has been mainly developed in the historical-critical and technological areas. The research in project is an emerging field in comparison to the production of knowledge in other areas and as such, it generates (causes) debate and controversy. This late arrival of the project to the academic research is explained in this paper, from the analysis of the epistemological paradigm which underlies the organization of knowledge in disciplinary fields and the academic structure of modern universities. Just as any professional practice, the project is in this system of ideas, only considered in its instrumental dimension as an application of knowledge generated in other fields. At the same time, new interpretations related to the value of the practices and the knowledge incorporated in the practical field are recognized in the emerging epistemological approaches, creating the opportunity of rethinking the project as a way of production of knowledge. Taking the study of the way of thinking and the cognitive resources involved in the project process as a starting point, its potential to the production of knowledge concerning architecture problems and the adequacy of the habitat in general are identified. Based on an extensive case study, from investigations to project exploration, the diverse ways in which this knowledge generated in the practice of the project can help in the academic research in architecture are analyzed. Finally, some strategies to promote the development of research in this field are proposed while evaluation criteria for the investigation projects works are drawn up. These criteria take into consideration the specificities of the discipline and the originality requirements simultaneously, precision and communicability that are essential for the academic knowledge to be accumulative.

INTRODUCTION: The Saudi Arabian Ministry of Education established the 'General Directorate of Guidance and Counseling' in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Saudi Arabia) in 1981. In 2003 approximately 4,000 school-based counsellors were working in schools in Saudi Arabia. Student counselling programmes in Saudi schools cover the areas of preventative, educational, vocational, and religious and moral counselling. Although school-based counselling is well established in Saudi Arabia there are very few studies researching school-based counselling in Saudi schools that have been identified in the literature. There is evidence to show that school-based counsellors face numerous problems in practice. RESEARCH QUESTION: The main research question for the research study is 'What are the attitudes, perceptions, knowledge, and understandings of school counsellors in schools in Saudi Arabia?' OBJECTIVES: The objectives of the study were: (1) to investigate the personal views and opinions of school counsellors working in boys' secondary schools in the research city; (2) to investigate the level of knowledge as well as the understandings of school counselling which school counsellors have; (3) to investigate the attitudes and perceptions that school counsellors bring to/have developed through their work; and (4) to investigate any cultural impacts and influences on school counsellors in Saudi Arabia. METHODS: Four qualitative research methods were employed for the research study. These were: (1) a qualitative review of the literature; (2) a qualitative autobiography; (3) keeping a qualitative research journal; and (4) qualitative semi-structured interviews. The semi-structured interviews were undertaken with twenty-four (n=24) male school-based counsellors working in secondary boys' schools located in the research city. The interview transcripts were coded and qualitative Thematic Content Analysis (TCA) was carried out in order to identify themes from the qualitative data. RESULTS: The TCA drew out six themes from the data obtained that related to stakeholders (i.e. students, parents, teachers, head teachers) within the school environment. These were: (1) negative stakeholder behavioural attitudes towards school counsellors; (2) negative stakeholder perceptions towards school counsellors; (3) a general lack of knowledge of modern school counselling practices demonstrated by the school-based counsellors; (4) dissension between school-based counsellors and other stakeholders regarding their role; (5) cultural and religious influences on Western models of school counselling; and (6) a general lack of support within and beyond the school community. CONCLUSION: A broad range of significant problems for school-based counsellors were identified in the study. These problems significantly limit the ability of school-based counsellors to deliver effective and useful school counselling services. There exists a clear and pressing need to address these problems and deficiencies in order for school-based counsellors to be able to carry out their role within the school environment.

The link between stress and the teaching profession is well-established in empirical research (Hamama, Ronen, Shachar and Rosenbaum, 2013, pp731-732; Carton and Fruchart, 2014, p246; Stoeber and Rennert, 2008, p2; Shyman, 2011, p352; Travers, 2001, p130). In fact, stress is now spoken of as a given; as an ‘inescapable aspect of teaching’ (Smith and Bourke, 1992, p31) with detrimental effects on teachers’ careers and health (Klassen, 2010, p342). Regardless of any previous theories, research and interventions, teacher stress is an issue now and linked to the high levels of staff absence and the record numbers of those leaving or planning to leave the profession (Espinoza, 2015; Precey, 2015; Lightfoot, 2016). This research therefore addresses a current issue of relevance and importance regarding the field of Education. It offers a window into the subject and provides knowledge and insight from some of those very teachers who are affected. My research is situated firmly in the qualitative paradigm (Denzin 2008) and uses a narrative inquiry to elevate and prioritise people’s stories, voices and subjective experiences. The study explores the relationship between the teacher and their environment in the experience of stress, and how this impacts on teachers’ behaviours, health and well-being. This research project and its findings contribute to the field in a variety of ways. I challenge much of the language and labelling frequenting the literature on stress, teacher stress and coping. I offer a different perspective and non-judgemental terminology to describe and understand stress-related behaviours: ‘creative–survival behaviours’ (CSB). The research also fills a gap in the teacher stress literature by incorporating the concept of trauma and posttraumatic growth. I explore how it links to my participants’ experiences as well as potentially many other teachers both nationally and internationally. In addition, this study illuminates the importance of relationships and the price that can be paid if positive, collaborative relationships are not in place. I introduce the term ‘relationship - architecture’ to reflect that relationships are the bricks and mortar when building a school. Fundamentally, my research champions the notion that just as every child matters, so does every teacher.

The context of current research is a tier-3 university in Ningbo China, where English education is compulsory for all students. As an English teacher working in this university for 17 years, I note that each year a large number of students have very poor performance and are struggling in English learning. My inquiry aims to find out the major reasons giving rise to their low achievement, so that a more effective intervention could be designed to help them. My literature review leads me to focus on 12 factors that are traditionally claimed to have associations with English low achievement. Meanwhile I remain open to the new factors arising during the whole research process. The priority of this research is to identify the key causal factors and reveal the nature of these factors. Through extensive reviews, I realize that English language development could be best viewed as a complex system consisting three sub-systems, i.e., the learner, the teacher and the learning environment. English low achievement is the negative emergence of this system. Plenty of contributing factors are involved in this process. They are intertwined and interactive in intricate ways. Because of this complex interaction, the outcome of learning might be more than or less than the sum of the factors. Exploring the independent factors alone cannot draw a clear picture of how low achievement is developed. Complex systems theory integrates the parts and the wholeness, therefore offers a deeper and more encompassing theoretical framework for current research. My research design is a case study with mixed methods. I purposefully selected three sample classes which represent students from three different disciplines, i.e., natural science, arts and humanities, and social science. Three tools are used to collect data, namely non-participant observation, semi-structured interview and questionnaire survey. I observed the classroom teaching of each class for two or three times, and their after-class self-learning activity for two or three times as well. In addition, I interviewed seven low-achieving and two high-achieving students from the three classes, as well as their three English teachers. Furthermore, I conducted questionnaire surveys in the three classes, and among the English teachers in this university. My findings demonstrate that there are three categories of factors in respect to English low achievement. First, the literature shows that the factors such as gender, family background and IQ have close association with academic achievement. However, the current study reveals that they are less likely to be the major causal factors for English low achievement. Second, some factors have moderate associations with the low achievement, that is, they do not play the critical roles in contributing to this learning outcome. These factors include lack of integrative motivation, peers’ adverse influence, poor learning strategies, lack of self-confidence, the problem of curriculum, and the negative attitude toward learning. Last, most importantly, this inquiry finds that four factors are likely to be the key reasons resulting in English low achievement, i.e., lack of effort, lack of interest, poor prior attainment and teacher’s adverse effect. Generally the low achievement is chiefly the result of interactions of these four factors. Under the lens of complex systems theory, it is revealed that the sub-systems consist of the learner him/herself, the teacher and the learning environment, and that the causal factors display the nature of interconnectedness and dynamism. Failure of one of them may lead to failure of dependent others. English low achievement is likely to be the result of chain reactions of multiple failing factors. In addition, the sub-systems and their constituent factors are not static, but in flux. In one time period, a factor may exert positive influence upon English learning; over time, the factor may change and exercise negative influence. In education, therefore, it is important not only to stimulate but to maintain key favourable factors in dealing with low achieving students. This inquiry draws the learning trajectories of low achievers by exploring their learning experience. Their performance is usually good at the outset of their English learning. In their secondary schools, a negative perturbation usually breaks into their academic life, which causes a butterfly effect, then, a slippery slope starts. They are stuck into the attractor of low achievement, which is difficult to escape from without external assistance. Most of them once tried to improve their performance, but failed. As a result their low achievement continues till university in which some turn the tide with the positive change of the three sub-systems. This research finds that a certain percentage of English low achievers are reversible, however it demands the concerted and persistent effort of all three parities, i.e., the learner, the teacher and the university. As far as the learner is concerned, the intervention should primarily deal with the affective variables with regard to his/her problems related to effort, interest, prior attainment and teachers.

Typescript (photocopy). / Digitized by Kansas Correctional Industries