Significant secular changes have been documented in several worldwide populations over the past 200 years; these changes include increased stature and weight, increased cranial vault height, and a narrowing of the cranial vault width (Angel 1976; Boas 1912; Jantz 2001; Jonke et al. 2007; Little et al. 2006). A variety of hypotheses have been proposed as to the origins of the observed changes. This dissertation uses a documented collection of skeletons from the 19th and 20th centuries to describe the precise nature of the changes using three-dimensional methods and explores possible causes underlying the changes including individual environmental effects, demographic parameters, and spatial effects. Three-dimensional cranial landmarks from 500 identified individuals from the New Lisbon Skeletal collection in Lisbon, Portugal were collected along with available demographic data. The birth years represented in the sample range from 1805-1960. The Portuguese sample provides the opportunity for understanding the genetic and environmental components of the observed changes. The highly circumscribed nature of the skeletal collection, which contains only individuals from the relatively homogenous Portuguese population, enables a comparison of the observed changes with information about individual environmental effects, such as socioeconomic status and health status. The impact of the demographic transition that characterizes modern populations is also examined; the modern demographic transition is characterized by a decrease in mortality followed by a decrease in fertility. Also, information regarding the place of birth and place of death for individuals in the sample is used to model the spatial effects on cranial morphology and to demonstrate the maintenance of genetic structure in spite of significant secular changes. In addition to providing a unique sample for testing theories related to the causes of secular trends, this research also provides a new way of documenting secular trends. In previous research, secular changes have primarily used traditional linear craniometric data, anthropometric data, or conscript records to document change. The use of three-dimensional data enables a more exact description of changes in the cranial form and provides the opportunity for a more precise understanding of the basis for change.

The established methods for estimating average body mass from the skeleton are of two types: biomechanical and morphometric. Neither technique currently addresses the extremes of body mass (e.g. emaciation or obesity). The goal of this research is to explore several different biomechanical methods, using data collected from high resolution computed tomographic scans and macroscopic analysis of 150 known modern individuals from the William M. Bass Donated Skeleton Collection at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville. This research will review the biomechanics of human gait and the biomechanical accommodations that occur with increased obesity and load bearing. The analysis will include cross-sectional geometry of the human femur at five locations along the diaphysis, bone mineral density scans of the proximal femur and a macroscopic evaluation of degenerative changes of the articulations of the spine, hip, knee and foot. The best single indicator of body mass for both males and females is the cross-sectional area of the proximal femur and BMD. By using pathologies combined, an accuracy rate of 87% for predicting obesity was achieved using a classification tree with sexes pooled. Furthermore, severe obesity has such a profound effect on the human skeleton as to leave a suite of traits affecting the load bearing elements of the lower limb and vertebral column.

The Western Hemisphere Health Index was applied to prehistoric contemporaneous skeletal populations from Tennessee and the semi-arid North of Chile to ascertain four things: 1. overall health status for each culture; 2. comparison of health status between contemporaneous cultures; 3. if subsistence change (i.e., transition from gathering-hunting to agriculture) is consistently accompanied by a decline in overall health; and 4. the utility of the health index methodology. The skeletal populations analyzed from the semi-arid North of Chile were Archaic (7730 B.C. – A.D. 245) and Diaguita (A.D. 1000 – 1536). Prehistoric individuals examined from Tennessee were Archaic (8000 – 1000 B.C.); Woodland (1000 B.C. – A.D. 1000); and Mississippian (A.D. 1000 – 1600). (Total n = 433 individuals). Both Archaic populations had primarily a gathering and hunting subsistence strategy, Woodland peoples were emerging horticulturalists, and Mississippian and Diaguita populations practiced full-scale agriculture. As per health index methodology, seven indicators of health were scored (stature, linear enamel hypoplasia, dental disease, anemia, infection, degenerative joint disease, and trauma). Health index statistical methodology and Pearson chi-square were used to test the proposed hypotheses. Results indicated that the Archaic Tennessee population had the lowest health index value, and both Chilean populations had the highest. The results of the chi-square analyses run on each of the health indicators by population were in tandem with the health index results. In Tennessee, health appeared to improve through time; while in Chile, health essentially stayed the same during the subsistence transition. Such results suggest that the hypothesis of a health decline during and after subsistence change to agriculture is not always demonstrated. These findings further indicate that general rules regarding the association between health and subsistence change do not exist. Rather than applying generalizations to populations, research should focus on the specific situation of each population (environment, subsistence, socio-political organization, etcetera) followed by a comparison between populations to reveal similarities and differences. Such analyses will assist with identifying the relative importance of particular factors for each site. The utility of the health index methodology was also discussed. The index is a useful tool for population comparison, though further refinement of the methodological protocol is warranted.

The demand for forensic anthropologists and archaeologists to investigate violations of human rights and international humanitarian law is increasing. The International Criminal Court, established in 1998, has jurisdiction over the crimes of genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes. The development of a permanent tribunal with jurisdiction over these crimes as well as the numerous State Parties to the treaty is a reflection of the international community‟s commitment to the prosecution of these crimes. Forensic evidence can and will assume an essential role in future international criminal courts. Forensic evidence made a significant contribution to the prosecution of genocide and several other crimes in trials held by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. This study examines three cases in which the defendants were indicted for committing the crime of genocide in Srebrenica, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 1995 during the Bosnian War. These cases demonstrate three main concerns for forensic experts involved in a forensic investigation. First, forensic experts must testify to evidence that can satisfy the legal definitions of crimes. Second, the forensic expert must conduct an investigation using methods and standards that produce scientific evidence that is accepted by the Court as such. Third, the forensic expert must adhere to professional and ethical standards in an effort to maintain their personal integrity and to protect the legitimacy of the investigation and resultant evidence. An examination of these three topics with direct references to the trial transcripts of forensic anthropologists, archaeologists, and pathologists‟ testimony provides insight into the prosecution of genocide as it relates to forensic evidence, identifies methodological practices and standard operating procedures that are particularly susceptible to judicial scrutiny, and highlights ethical and professional issues that must be considered by the forensic expert prior to participating in a criminal investigation. This study offers the potential to improve the utility of forensic evidence in future investigations. A deeper understanding of the legal aspects of forensic investigations may also invigorate research geared towards addressing the needs of court systems and maximizing the potential of forensic evidence in future trials.

Trauma analysis is a growing area of physical and forensic anthropology. The analysis of fracture patterns is useful in determining cause and manner of death, as well as making inferences about past populations. Traditionally, anthropologists have categorized bone trauma into the discrete categories of blunt, ballistic, and sharp trauma. While these descriptors provide a practical approach, anthropologists need to change the way that trauma is perceived and analysis of fractures is conducted. Bone trauma is best viewed as a continuum (rather than discrete independent categories), with the variables of force, acceleration/deceleration, and surface area of impacting interface governing the appearance of the resulting fractures. The application of this new way of thinking will allow anthropologists to better understand bone fracture and injury to the body as a relationship between the engineering inputs and the anatomical outputs. This new way of thinking is applied to the human skeleton and tested through a series of experimental studies and injury data analyses. The studies include fracture propagation and patterning in the skull, the response of the thorax/upper body to propeller induced trauma, force tolerance for human phalanges, and mechanics of lower limb fractures. The results from these studies assist in reiterating the importance of variables (or “engineering inputs”), such as force, surface area of impacting interface, and acceleration/deceleration, on the resulting injury and fracture patterns (“anatomical outputs”) of the human body. As expected, the magnitude of force clearly influences the severity of fractures. However, comparison of force magnitude is not a “one-to-one” comparison. Surface area between the impacting object and the bone is a crucial variable. It essentially explains differences between blunt and sharp trauma. An example of the surface area variable in this experimental testing involved the propeller impacts to the buttocks and upper body. Note, though, as failure occurs, surface area interfacing can change, resulting in sharp trauma wounds that could contain characteristics of blunt trauma, or vice versa. Intrinsic properties of the bone (such as geometry, location, quality of bone) and its anisotropic and viscoelastic nature should also be considered along with these other engineering variables.

During the 19th century, the increasing demand for saltpeter, a vital ingredient in gunpowder, led to both large- and small-scale saltpeter-mining operations in caves throughout Tennessee. Although the general procedures in the historic processing of saltpeter are fairly well understood, very little archaeological research has been undertaken on specific saltpeter-mining sites. Historic documentation of mining activities within these caves is scarce, thus systematic studies of these sites are integral to a greater understanding of this early extractive industry. The research presented in this thesis is the first in the region in which archaeological and dendrochronological investigations were used in conjunction in an attempt to remedy this absence of formal study. The dry environment of deep caves allows for excellent preservation of the material record, thus many saltpeter-mining sites still contain the equipment used in the mining operations, much of it still in context. The subject of this study, Cagle Saltpetre Cave, in Van Buren County, Tennessee, is one such site. My research design was focused on outlining the social history of the site, examining specific mining activities and saltpeter processing technologies employed, establishing specific temporal parameters for when the mining activities took place, and delineating changes in processing technology over time. Both archaeological and dendrochronological principles were employed to address these questions. The archaeological investigation of Cagle Saltpetre Cave consisted of archival research, a comprehensive survey and mapping project, and Geographical Information Systems (GIS)-based data management and analyses. Archival research was conducted in an attempt to locate historic documentation of the mining operations at Cagle Saltpetre Cave. The cave was comprehensively surveyed and mapped in detail in order to document the location of prehistoric and historic cultural remains. The data generated from the mapping project were then examined for spatial patterns using GIS software. By documenting the spatial relationships of extant artifacts and features, information was gleaned to account for specific activities that took place at the site. In addition, these analyses allowed the reconstruction of other important aspects of the mining operations. During the mining episodes at Cagle Saltpetre Cave, wooden leaching vats needed for the lixiviation of saltpeter, or calcium nitrate, from mined sediment were constructed and used within the cave. When mining operations ceased, these artifacts were abandoned and preserved in situ, some remaining virtually intact. Their remarkable preservation enabled tree-ring dating of timbers associated with these artifacts. The results of these analyses indicate that saltpeter was mined and processed at the site during three discrete episodes throughout the 19th century. Additionally, saltpeter-processing technology changed throughout the course of the mining operations.

Os acromiale was first described by the anatomist Grüber in 1859. In later anthropological studies, os acromiale has subsequently been referred to as a genetic marker among African-American populations. However, Blakey (2000) and Rankin-Hill (1997) point out that biomechanical stress should be considered as a possible cause of this trait. This population has a harsh history, which is evidenced in the skeletal remains via nutritional deficiency, disease, and markers of occupational stress. A trait interpreted as genetic, may in fact be another stress marker. Frequency rates (%) in the William M. Bass donated skeletal collection, representing a modern sample, were compared to data from African-American skeletal samples spanning the last 300+ years. A lower frequency among modern samples may support a functional argument as a result of technological advancements leading to reduced physiological stress. The comparative African-American samples, examined here, include (in chronological order): New York African Burial Ground (7.6%), First African Baptist Church (20%), Mother United African Methodist Episcopalian Church (2.9%), Terry (11.1%), and the Hamann-Todd Collection (13.2%). Both the New York African Burial Ground and Mother UAME are samples presented for the first time. Unlike other samples, their frequency is not high. The Bass data, collected from a sample of 420 individuals, yielded an overall frequency of os acromiale at 3.3%. This is a decrease from the average frequency of 7% cited in the clinical literature. However, the frequency rate among the African-American component of this collection is a high os acromiale frequency, of 10.8% (n=4/37). The European- American frequency of the William M. Bass collection is quite low at 2.6% (n=10/383). In general, the African-American os acromiale frequencies are not always high as they have been presented. Further investigation may reveal that the underlying cause of the high os acromiale frequencies may involve additional factors. One factor may be acromial shape. The shape categories as classified by Edelson and Taitz (1992), is argued to reveal the underlying genetic cause of high os acromiale frequencies. If certain acromial shapes prove to be positively correlated to specific ancestral groups, then this could illustrate the genetic cause is a result of variation. However, if acromial shape varies in spite of ancestry, other mechanical arguments should be examined. While this research is not meant to present the last word on the etiology of this trait, it is meant to examine modern os acromiale frequencies, specifically in reference to acromial shape. The former is to test a mechanical etiology and the latter to test a genetic etiology.

Several studies at the Anthropology Research Facility located at The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, longitudinally examine the process of human decomposition. However, to date, no study has focused exclusively on clothing as a variable in this process. Furthermore, few studies have been performed using animal models. Recent research demonstrates conflicting results regarding the affect of clothing on decomposition. Some authors conclude that clothing accelerates decomposition, while others maintain that it retards the process. The goal of this study is two fold: first, the process of decomposition of clothed human subjects was documented; second, it was determined whether clothing accelerates or retards the process of decomposition. This was accomplished by comparing temperature, i.e., accumulated degree-days, for clothed cadavers with those of nude cadavers. Over the course of one year, the cadavers of six unembalmed, unautopsied individuals were dressed in clothing and placed at the Anthropology Research Facility to decompose naturally. Subjects were observed and scored on a decomposition staging scale of I to IV. Accumulated degree days were then calculated and compared against values obtained from previous research utilizing nude cadavers. It was determined that clothing retards the process of decomposition in the spring and summer. Clothing was not a significant variable in the winter and no comparison was possible for cadavers used in the fall. This study demonstrates that the presence or absence of clothing must be appreciated and compensated for when making an estimate of time since death.

The goal of this study is to determine whether aspects of modern life predispose individuals to different patterns of trauma than earlier populations. The specific patterns and susceptibilities to injury may be unique to individual populations and provide a reference in order to gauge quality of life and health status for the populations under study. The present investigation was conducted using the Hamann-Todd Osteological Collection and the William M. Bass Donated Collection. The analysis of both collections was conducted macroscopically without the aid of radiographs. Only complete, adult specimens were used to allow for greater statistical power, according to the method of Lovejoy and Heiple (1981) and Judd (2002). Each element of the skeleton, except for hands and feet, was visually inspected for the presence or absence of fractures. Demographic information was recorded for each individual and includes cause of death, age, sex, and ancestry. Statistical analyses were performed using SAS Version 9.1.3 (2003) and SPSS Version 16.0 (2007). The frequency data generated by the two collections in this study were analyzed using cross-tabulations with Chi-square tests, to determine if any differences occurred between the earlier and later populations, as well as between age, sex, and ancestry groups. The results indicate that differences exist across the demographic categories. The variation inherent in the sample may be attributed to the fact that the Hamann-Todd collection was created from a more socio-economically disadvantaged population, as compared to the Bass donated collection. Overall, there is significant variation found between the seven groups included in this study, which helps garner a further understanding of modern injury patterns.

This study focuses on how a single layer of clothing affects-human decomposition, and if human decomposition-has a noticeable affect on clothing materials. Two cadavers were placed at the Anthropological Research Facility in Knoxville, TN on January 16, 1991. One was clothed, the other was nude. Seven different types of yarns were attached to the inside of the clothing on the experimental subject, and another set of these yarns was anchored to the base of nearby tree to serve as a control sample set. Cadavers were monitored as they decomposed, and insect activity was observed, from January 16, 1991 until May 4, 1991. The National Weather Service provided daily high and low temperatures. Yarn samples were collected from January 16, 1991 until November 5, 1991 and examined visually, and fibers from the yarns were examined microscopically for mechanical/structural deterioration, and breaking strengths were measured. The clothed cadaver (EXP) decomposed more quickly than the nude cadaver (CTL) did. EXP reached bloating and active decay almost twice as quickly as did CTL, probably because the garment facilitated the growth and development of carrion insects which are responsible for much of the destruction of the remains. Fibers from experimental and control yarns showed little or no structural or mechanicai damage microscopically or visually. Breaking strength tests indicated that the yarns responded differentially to human decomposition. However, larger sample sizes and a longer period of research will offer clearer answers.