Os ensaios celulares têm ganhado relevância na gênese planejada de fármacos, devido a sua utilização nas diversas etapas envolvidas neste processo. Estes ensaios envolvem a caracterização da atividade farmacológica, propriedades farmacocinéticas e atividade tóxica para compreender a atividade biológica das moléculas de interesse. Neste trabalho, os ensaios celulares foram usados para identificar a atividade anticancerígena e a atividade tóxica de moléculas, uma vez que a morte celular é o parâmetro avaliado em ambos os casos. No presente estudo foram avaliados 34 compostos, sendo dezessete moléculas do grupo NEQUIMED, determinando-se sua atividade citotóxica na célula neoplásica de fígado (HepG2) e na célula de fibroblasto (V79-4). A determinação da atividade citotóxica dos compostos bioativos foi realizada por o método colorimétrico de triagem envolvendo o MTT (brometo de 3-(4,5-dimetiltiazol-2-il)-2,5-difeniltetrazólio), que é metabolizado pela mitocôndria da célula viva, com confirmação da atividade biológica realizada por citometria de fluxo para a linhagem de fibroblasto. As triagens iniciais foram estabelecidas para determinar a atividade biológica, sendo que as moléculas Neq256, Neq385 e Neq388 apresentaram atividade citotóxica frente à célula HepG2 (caracterizando assim a atividade anticancerígena), enquanto que Neq385 apresentou seletividade em relação a atividade nas células de fibroblasto. Dentre as moléculas de referência, YM-155 apresentou os melhores resultados de atividade citotóxica com IC50 (HepG2) de 0,094 µmol L-1 e IC50 (V79-4) > 100 µmol L-1, sendo muito seletiva para a linhagem cancerígena. Os resultados demonstraram que as moléculas Neq265, Neq385 e Neq388 são promissoras e serão usadas para o planejamento de modificações estruturais que visa obter moléculas com maior potência e seletividade frente às células cancerígenas. Outra vertente do trabalho envolve o planejamento de inibidores da survivina, que apresentam grande potencial para a descoberta e desenvolvimento de estratégias quimioterápicas seletivas. / Cell-based assays are gaining relevance in the drug discovery and development area, being in use almost throughout the whole process. These assays are applied to characterize the pharmacological, pharmacokinetic and toxic activities of new molecules. In this work, cell-based assays were performed to identify anticancer and toxic activities of novel compounds, once the cell death process is the parameter that was evaluated in both cases. In this work, 34 compounds were evaluated (17 of them from the NEQUIMED database) in which the cytotoxic activity in liver cancer cells (HepG2) and hamster fibroblast cells (V79-4) were determined by means of the MTT colorimetric screening. The biological activity in fibroblast cells was further confirmed by using flow cytometry. Out of the whole set, molecules Neq256, Neq385 e Neq388 were cytotoxic to HepG2 (having anticancer activity). Neq385 was selective towards the liver hepatocellular carcinoma when compared with the fibroblasts. Among the reference compounds, YM-155 was the most selective and potent anticancer molecule: IC50 (HepG2) 0.094 µmol L-1 and IC50 (V79-4) > 100 µmol L-1. Taken together, these results provide promissing new molecules (Neq265, Neq385 e Neq388) for further optimization of the potency and selectivity using drug design. Another important outcome for further exploration is the design of survivin inhibitors bearing a huge potential for novel selective chemotherapeutic approaches.

Os ensaios celulares têm ganhado relevância na gênese planejada de fármacos, devido a sua utilização nas diversas etapas envolvidas neste processo. Estes ensaios envolvem a caracterização da atividade farmacológica, propriedades farmacocinéticas e atividade tóxica para compreender a atividade biológica das moléculas de interesse. Neste trabalho, os ensaios celulares foram usados para identificar a atividade anticancerígena e a atividade tóxica de moléculas, uma vez que a morte celular é o parâmetro avaliado em ambos os casos. No presente estudo foram avaliados 34 compostos, sendo dezessete moléculas do grupo NEQUIMED, determinando-se sua atividade citotóxica na célula neoplásica de fígado (HepG2) e na célula de fibroblasto (V79-4). A determinação da atividade citotóxica dos compostos bioativos foi realizada por o método colorimétrico de triagem envolvendo o MTT (brometo de 3-(4,5-dimetiltiazol-2-il)-2,5-difeniltetrazólio), que é metabolizado pela mitocôndria da célula viva, com confirmação da atividade biológica realizada por citometria de fluxo para a linhagem de fibroblasto. As triagens iniciais foram estabelecidas para determinar a atividade biológica, sendo que as moléculas Neq256, Neq385 e Neq388 apresentaram atividade citotóxica frente à célula HepG2 (caracterizando assim a atividade anticancerígena), enquanto que Neq385 apresentou seletividade em relação a atividade nas células de fibroblasto. Dentre as moléculas de referência, YM-155 apresentou os melhores resultados de atividade citotóxica com IC50 (HepG2) de 0,094 µmol L-1 e IC50 (V79-4) > 100 µmol L-1, sendo muito seletiva para a linhagem cancerígena. Os resultados demonstraram que as moléculas Neq265, Neq385 e Neq388 são promissoras e serão usadas para o planejamento de modificações estruturais que visa obter moléculas com maior potência e seletividade frente às células cancerígenas. Outra vertente do trabalho envolve o planejamento de inibidores da survivina, que apresentam grande potencial para a descoberta e desenvolvimento de estratégias quimioterápicas seletivas. / Cell-based assays are gaining relevance in the drug discovery and development area, being in use almost throughout the whole process. These assays are applied to characterize the pharmacological, pharmacokinetic and toxic activities of new molecules. In this work, cell-based assays were performed to identify anticancer and toxic activities of novel compounds, once the cell death process is the parameter that was evaluated in both cases. In this work, 34 compounds were evaluated (17 of them from the NEQUIMED database) in which the cytotoxic activity in liver cancer cells (HepG2) and hamster fibroblast cells (V79-4) were determined by means of the MTT colorimetric screening. The biological activity in fibroblast cells was further confirmed by using flow cytometry. Out of the whole set, molecules Neq256, Neq385 e Neq388 were cytotoxic to HepG2 (having anticancer activity). Neq385 was selective towards the liver hepatocellular carcinoma when compared with the fibroblasts. Among the reference compounds, YM-155 was the most selective and potent anticancer molecule: IC50 (HepG2) 0.094 µmol L-1 and IC50 (V79-4) > 100 µmol L-1. Taken together, these results provide promissing new molecules (Neq265, Neq385 e Neq388) for further optimization of the potency and selectivity using drug design. Another important outcome for further exploration is the design of survivin inhibitors bearing a huge potential for novel selective chemotherapeutic approaches.

Commiphora species (from which myrrh is obtained) has been a source of several novel and bio-active natural compounds. Traditionally, Commiphora (Burseraceae) is used in southern Africa for the treatment of ulcers, fevers, and as a remedy for snake and scorpion bites. In western Africa, the macerated stem is used in the treatment of rheumatic conditions. The resin of some Commiphora species is applied topically to aid in wound healing. Documented uses include antibacterial and antifungal properties, as well as cytotoxic, cytostatic and anti-oxidant activity. The botanical diversity of this genus in South Africa warrants a study of this plant group, to provide scientific evidence for the traditional use of Commiphora species in African healing rites. Ten Commiphora species were investigated. Fresh plant material of the selected species were identified and collected from natural populations in the Limpopo Province. Active compounds, viz. kaempferol and dihydrokaempferol, in C. glandulosa (stem) were isolated using bioassay-guided fractionation and identified using nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. The stem and leaf extracts of each species were analysed for in vitro anti-oxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, anticancer activity, as well as cytotoxicity. The anti-oxidant activity of the extracts was investigated using the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging assay and the 2,2’-azino-bis(3-ethyl-benzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) assays. Extracts generally exhibited poor anti-oxidant activity in the DPPH assay, with the exception of C. schimperi (stem), C. neglecta (stem), C. tenuipetiolata (stem and leaf), and C. edulis (stem), which possessed IC50 values ranging between 7.31 μg/ml and 10.81 μg/ml. Isolated compounds were subjected to the DPPH assay to determine the anti-oxidant potential of each compound, separately and in combination to establish possible synergistic, antagonistic or additive effects. The flavonol, kaempferol (IC50 = 3.32 μg/ml) showed exceptional radical scavenging activity, in contrast to the low activity displayed by dihydrokaempferol (IC50 = 301.57 μg/ml), their combination being antagonistic. Greater anti-oxidant activity was observed for most species in the ABTS assay when compared to the results obtained in the DPPH assay. The best activity was observed for the stem extracts of C. neglecta (IC50 = 7.28 μg/ml) and C. mollis (IC50 = 8.82 μg/ml). In vitro antimicrobial efficacy was determined against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria as well as yeasts using the MIC microtiter plate assay. A greater selectivity was exhibited by the extracts against the Gram-positive bacteria and yeast than against the Gram-negative bacteria. Using death kinetics studies (time-kill studies), the rate at which the antimicrobial agent kills pathogens over a 24-hour period was determined. The antibacterial activity of Commiphora marlothii (stem) was observed to begin at ca. 30 min of the exposure of S. aureus to the different concentrations of plant extract. All concentrations exhibited antibacterial activity, with a complete bactericidal effect achieved by all test concentrations by the 24th hour. Commiphora pyracanthoides (stem) displayed anti-inflammatory activity through good inhibition of the 5-LOX enzyme (IC50 = 27.86 μg/ml). The ability of extracts and kaempferol to inhibit the in vitro growth of three human cancer cell lines, namely the colon adenocarcinoma (HT-29), breast adenocarcinoma (MCF-7), and the neuronal glioblastoma (SF-268), was evaluated using the sulforhodamine (SRB) antiproliferative assay. The most active Commiphora species against the HT-29 cells were C. glandulosa (leaf and stem) and C. marlothii (leaf). The MCF-7 cell line was the most sensitive to indigenous Commiphora species, with C. edulis (leaf and stem), C. glandulosa (leaf and stem), C. marlothii (leaf), C. pyracanthoides (leaf and stem), C. schimperi (stem), and C. viminea (stem) all possessing an inhibition greater than 80% at 100 μg/ml. Commiphora glandulosa (leaf and stem) and C. pyracanthoides (leaf and stem) were the two most active species against the SF-268 cells, with IC50 values ranging between 68.50 μg/ml and 71.45 μg/ml. The inhibition of the cancer cell proliferation by kaempferol in all three-cancer cell lines was determined, with IC50 values of 9.78 μg/ml in HT-29 cells, 20.21 μg/ml in MCF-7 cells and 43.83 μg/ml in SF-268 cells. The microculture tetrazolium cellular viability (MTT) assay was used to determine the cellular toxicity of the extracts against transformed human kidney epithelium (Graham) cells. Commiphora glandulosa (stem) proved to be most toxic (IC50 = 30.5 μg/ml). The IC50 values for all other extracts were in excess of 95 μg/ml suggesting low in vitro toxicity for the majority of the species. A phytochemical investigation of the non-volatile constituents of the leaf and stems was conducted using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The HPLC profiles and UV spectra of the stem extracts, and the representative flavonoid patterns in the leaf extracts of the species indicate that a similarity exists in their chemical fingerprint.

Flavonoids are polyphenolic secondary metabolites found in plants that have bioactive properties including antiviral, antioxidant, and anticancer. Two isomeric flavone were extracted from Gnaphalium elegans and Achyrocline bogotensis, plants used by the people from the Andean region of South America as remedies for cancer. 5,7-dihydroxy-3,6,8-trimethoxy-2-phenyl-4H-chromen-4-one (5, 7–dihydroxy- 3, 6, 8 trimethoxy flavone/ flavone A) and 3,5-dihydroxy-6,7,8-trimethoxy-2-phenyl-4H-chromen-4-one (3, 5–dihydroxy-6, 7, 8–trimethoxy flavone/ flavone B) have shown antineoplastic activity against colon cancer cell lines dependent upon their differentiation status. Pharmacokinetic studies reported herein were used to determine dosing for antitumor assays, as well as determine target tissue concentration. These included the development of methods to extract the flavones from plasma or colon tissue and reverse phase high performance liquid chromatography methods for quantification. Quantification methods were linear (r2 ≥ 0.99) with plasma calibration curves ranging from 250 - 2,500 ng/mL and 2,500 - 100,000 ng/mL for both flavones and colon calibration curves ranging from 250 – 100,000 ng/g (flavone A) and 1,000-25,000 ng/g (flavone B). Intravenous administration of a 20 mg/kg dose in rats yielded half-lives of 83.68 ± 56.61 and 107.45 ± 53.31 minutes with clearance values of 12.99 ± 13.78 and 80.79 ± 35.06 mL/min/kg for flavones A and B, respectively. Analysis of colon tissue yielded concentrations of 1639 ± 601 ng/g (flavone A) and 5975 ± 2480 ng/g (flavone B), suggesting both may be good candidate for individual or adjunct therapy for colon cancer due to distribution to the target tissue. Preliminary studies in colon cancer cells CaCo 2 and HCT 116 using either flavone in combination with 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) suggested synergistic activity of these compounds. The combination treatment increased induction of apoptosis by enhancing the DNA damaging mechanism of 5-FU. In vivo, preliminary xenograft experiments using HCT 116 cells showed smaller tumors in mice dosed with flavone B as compared to the 5-FU or combination treatment. Further experiments are warranted to confirm these observations.

Ce travail a porté sur la bio-analyse de plantes médicinales Djiboutiennes. Ces dernières ont été sélectionnées sur des critères ethnobotaniques appliqués sur les plantes utilisées traditionnellement contre les infections microbiennes. Cette sélection a retenu six plantes qui ont ensuite subi un screening antibactérien et anti oxydant. Les résultats de ce screening ont conduit à étudier trois plantes: Acacia seyal, Indigofera caerulea et Cymbopogon commutatus. La recherche des composés de l’Acacia seyal est effectuée au moyen d’un bio-guidage. Deux extraits, aqueux et méthanolique, de l’écorce de cette plante sont évalués pour leur activité antibactérienne. Quatre composés sont isolés et caractérisés (épicatéchine, catéchine, catéchine digallique et β-sitostérol) et testés pour leurs activités. Par ailleurs quatre extraits (hexanique, acétonique, méthanolique et aqueux) du fruit d’Indigofera caerulea ont été testés pour leurs activités antibactérienne et anti oxydante. Les extraits hexanique et méthanolique sont les plus actifs. Six composés sont isolés de ces extraits (méthyl gallate, acide gallique, rutine, isoquercétine, kaempférol-3- rutinoside et β-sitostérol). Le méthyl gallate inhibe staphylococcus aureus avec une CMI de 64 µg/ mL. Enfin l’activité de l’huile essentielle de Cymbopogon commutatus est testée sur sept souches bactériennes, deux souches fongiques et onze types de cellules cancéreuses. Sur ces dernières, elle présente une forte cytotoxicité avec des IC50 allant de 0,05 µg/mL sur PC3 et HCT116 (cellules cancéreuses de la prostate et colorectales) et à 0,67 µg/mL sur NCI-N87 (cellule cancéreuse gastrique). De façon surprenante, une activité antibactérienne moyenne est observée. L’analyse GCMS de la partie solubilisée dans le milieu de culture a montré que seuls les composés hydrophiles étaient présents. La formulation d’une micro émulsion a été mise au point et les IC50 ont diminué jusqu’à une centaine de fois. Nous avons montré que cette huile essentielle renferme plus de 73,9 % de pipéritone (monoterpène). En conclusion, ces trois plantes ont montré des activités antimicrobiennes, et les travaux confirment leurs utilisations traditionnelles. En plus, nous avons montré qu’elles possèdent d’autres activités biologiques (anti oxydante et anti cancéreuse). Ces résultats devront contribuer à la mise en place d’une pharmacopée traditionnelle et à des formulations de ‘médicaments traditionnels améliorés’ (MTA) / This research focused on the bio-analysis of Djiboutian medicinal plants. These latter were selected on ethnobotanical criteria applied to the plants traditionally used against microbial infections. This selection retained six plants which were then subjected to a biological screening including antibacterial and anti-oxidant activities. Three plants were finally study: Acacia seyal, Indigofera caerulea and Cymbopogon commutatus. The search of compound in Acacia seyal was carried out by means of bio-guidance. Two extracts, aqueous and methanolic, of the bark of this plant were evaluated for their antibacterial activity. Four compounds were isolated, characterized (epicatechin, catechin, digallic catechin and β-sitosterol) and tested for their activity. Also four extracts (hexanic, acetonic, methanolic and aqueous) of the fruit of Indigofera caerulea were tested for their antibacterial and antioxidant activities. The Hexanic and methanolic extracts were the most active. Six compounds were isolated from these extracts (methyl gallate, gallic acid, rutin, isoquercetin, kaempferol-3-rutinoside and β-sitosterol). Methyl gallate inhibited Staphylococcus aureus with a MIC of 64 μg / mL. Finally, the activity of the essential oil of Cymbopogon commutatus was evaluated on seven bacterial strains, two fungal strains and eleven types of cancer cells. On the latter, it exhibits a high cytotoxicity with IC50s ranging from 0.05 μg / mL on PC3 and HCT116 (prostate and colorectal cancer cells) to 0.67 μg/mL on NCI-N87 (gastric cancer cell). Surprisingly, an antibacterial activity not so high was observed. GCMS analysis of the solubilized part in the culture medium showed that only the hydrophilic compounds were present. The formulation of a microemulsion was performed and the IC50 decreased to a hundred times. We have found that this essential oil contained more than 73.9 % piperitone (monoterpene). In conclusion, these three plants showed antimicrobial activities and the work confirms their traditional uses. In addition, we have shown that they have other biological activities (anti-oxidant and anti-cancer). These results should contribute to the establishment of a traditional pharmacopoeia and formulations of 'improved traditional medicines' (MTAs)

Charles University Faculty of Pharmacy in Hradec Králové Department of Pharmaceutical Botany Candidate: Aneta Ritomská Supervisor: Assoc. Prof. Ing. Lucie Cahlíková, Ph.D. Title of diploma thesis: Derivatives of Amaryllidaceae Alkaloids as Drugs Plants of the family Amaryllidaceae belong to the widespread species. They contain a large amount of Amaryllidaceae alkaloids (AA) which are known for their biological activity. AA possess a broad spectrum of biological activities including an antiviral, antimalarial, antitumor, cholinesterase's inhibitory activity and others. An interesting AA is ambelline which occurs mainly in plants of the genus Crinum and Nerine. So far the biological activity of this compound has been studied only marginally. In the studies conducted, this substance appears to be less interesting. A series of aliphatic and aromatic derivatives of ambelline has been prepared in the framework of this thesis. Subsequently, their cholinesterase inhibitory activity and GSK-3β inhibitory activity were studied. Cytotoxic activity on a panel of selected tumor and resting cell lines was also screened. Of the prepared derivatives, LC-125 (3-methoxybenzoylambellin) had an interesting biological activity. This substance showed a promising activity in all biological studies. GSK-3β inhibitory...

Australia's marine environment covers extended areas, from the warm northern tropical, to the sub tropical central water, the cool temperate water of the south and the cold sub-Antarctic and Antarctic water. Australia has rich area of coral reefs. The marine biodiversity in Australia is enormous. Despite incredible biodiversity, Australian research in the marine anticancer drug discoveries is low in comparison with other countries. In this research we investigated a collection of marine sponges as a source for new anticancer leads. This thesis comprises six chapters. Chapter 1 covers the importance of natural products as a source of new drugs, and an introduction to cancer as a disease, chemotherapy in cancer treatments, and the natural products as a source for anticancer drugs. Also, the basic anticancer drug development process is highlighted. Finally, a thorough review of anticancer alkaloids isolated from marine sponges is presented. Chapter 2 presents the chemical investigation into a southern Australian marine sponge Stelletta sp., which led to the isolation and structure elucidation of bistellettazines A-C the first reported examples of terpenyl-pyrrolizidines conjugate, and bistellettazole A, a unique cyclic terpenyl-imidazole conjugate. Bistellettazines A-C and bistellettazole A feature unprecedented carbon skeletons that are proposed to share a common convergent biosynthetic origin, arising via the biogenic equivalent of a Diels-Alder addition between two hypothetical polyenyl norsesquiterpene precursors. The cytotoxic activity (in vitro) for these new alkaloids is also discussed. Chapter 3 discusses the isolation and structure elucidation of four new discorhabdins analogues namely, dihydrodiscorhabdin A, debromodiscorhabdin A, discorhabdin X and dihydrodiscorhabdin L. In addition, the known compounds discorhabdin A and discorhabdin D, were isolated from two southern Australian marine sponge specimens of the genera Higginsia and Spongosorites. The cytotoxic activity (in vitro) for these new alkaloids was also discussed. Chapter 4 discloses chemical investigation into two southern Australian marine sponge specimens of the genera Clathria and Ptilocaulis. Four new mirabilin analogues (mirabilins H-K) were isolated and characterized along with known mirabilin C, F (for the first time as TFA salt) and mirabilin G. The cytotoxic activity (in vitro) for these new alkaloids was also discussed. Chapter 5 presents the 1H NMR data for the known compounds isolated during this study, and Chapter 6 is covering the experimental part.

Chemotherapy is the first line of treatment used in cancer. Chemotherapy drugs such as cisplatin, carboplatin and oxaliplatin are used in treatment. Cisplatin enters the cell through copper transporter CTR1 by passive diffusion and bind to DNA and proteins. Cisplatin is found to inhibit several enzymes targeting cysteine, histidine and methionine residues, which are expected to be responsible for its anticancer activity. A better understanding of how the size and shape and leaving ligands of platinum complexes affect cysteine protease, papain enzyme are studied. This could give new ways to optimize anticancer activity. The activity of papain enzyme was measured on UV-Visible spectroscopy. The inhibition profile of papain with different platinum (II) complexes, and with different combinations was studied.

Since the discovery of anti-tumor activity of cisplatin in 1960, significant progress has been made in treating metastatic or advanced cancer with cisplatin and platinum compounds. Platinum compounds covalently bind to DNA and disrupt DNA function. They are also known to bind with amino acids like methionine, histidine and cysteine to form cisplatin-protein adducts which are responsible for most of its cytotoxicity and side effects. Recent articles on cisplatin-protein have shown that adding bulky adjuncts to cisplatin or using different platinum compounds varies the degree and extent of reaction thus possibly reducing cisplatin resistance and side effects. One of the proteins to study is cytochrome C, which is an intermediate in apoptosis (a controlled form of cell death used to kill cells in the process of development or in response to infection or DNA damage). Cytochrome C activates caspase 9, a cysteine protease, which in turn goes on to activate caspases 3 and 7, which are responsible for destroying the cell from within. In this study, we tried to examine how various platinum compounds like cis-Pt(NH3)2Cl2, cis-Pt(NH3)2(NO3)2, Pt(en)(NO3)2, Pt(Me4en)(NO3)2, Pt(NH3)2 (oxalate), Pt(en)(oxalate),Pt(Me4en)(oxalate), which have different ligands/bulk, react with cytochrome C in different physiological conditions. This research project subsequently focused on three main aspects: 1) to determine whether the concentration of platinum compounds made a difference in the reaction rate, 2) to determine whether the pH of the buffer shows any difference in the reaction rate, 3) to determine how the ligands coordinated to the platinum affected the rate. We used 1) HPLC with vitamin B12 (cyanocobalamin) as an internal standard. 2) Separate samples of platinum compounds with bovine serum albumin were then subjected to dialysis and were then sent to the Materials Characterization Center for analysis by ICP-AES spectroscopy. In summary, the following conclusions are stated: •The leaving group, pH, bulk and the concentration play a very vital role in determining the reaction rate for platinum-cytochrome C interactions. •Chlorides form excellent leaving groups followed by oxalates then nitrates. •Pt(en) reacts faster than Pt(NH3)2 which reacts faster than Pt(Me4en). •Nitrates, Pt(en) and few oxalate form multiple products showing non-specific binding. Only cis-Pt(NH3)2Cl2 and Pt(Me4en)(oxalate) formed predominately a single product showing target specific binding. •cis-Pt(NH3)2Cl2 showed an increased reaction rate at lower pH while cis-Pt(NH3)2(NO3)2 and Pt(Me4en)(NO3)2 showed higher reactions at higher pH. •Despite platinum compound was present in significant molar excess relative to cytochrome C, at the end of 21 hrs there was a significant amount of unreacted cytochrome C left except in case of cis-Pt(en)Cl2 which reacted with the whole cytochrome C in less than ten minutes. •We saw the rate of reaction in order of cis-Pt(en)Cl2 > Pt(en)(oxalate) > cis-Pt(NH3)2Cl2 > Pt(en)(NO3)2 > cis-Pt(NH3)2(NO3)2 > cis-Pt(NH3)2(oxalate) > Pt(Me4en)(oxalate) > Pt(Me4en)(NO3)2

The molecular characteristics that affect the activity of various dirhodium complexes are reported. The importance of the axial position in the action of dirhodium compounds was studied. Three dirhodium complexes with increasing number of accessible axial coordination sites were synthesized and characterized. In cis-[Rh2(u-OAc)2(np)2]2+ (np = 1,8- naphthyridine) both axial sites are available for coordination, whereas for cis-[Rh2(u-OAc)2(np)(pynp)]+2 (pynp = 2-(2-pyridyl)1,8-naphthyridine) and cis-[Rh2(u-OAc)2(pynp)2]+2 the pyridyl arm on the ligand pynp blocks one and two axial sites, respectively. The availability of the axial positions affects the in vitro and in cellulo activity of these complexes demonstrating that open axial coordination sites are necessary for biological activity. The inhibitory activity of derivatives of dirhodium-dppz complexes (dppz = dipyrido[3,2-a:2',3'-c]phenazine) has also been investigated. The dppz derivatives included compounds with electron-withdrawing (Cl, CN, and NO2) as well as electro-donating (MeO and Me) substituents. These compounds inhibit transcription of T7-RNA polymerase by reducing accessible cysteine residues. The activity correlates with the electron withdrawing character of the substituent on the dppz ligand. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations reveal that the lowest unoccupied molecular orbitals (LUMOs) in the series are ligand-based pi* orbitals localized on the phenazine ring. These complexes represent the first family of dirhodium complexes whose inhibitory ability can be tuned by controlling their redox properties. The effect of the presence of diimine ligands in the dirhodium core in both in vitro and in cellulo activity is discussed. The presence of one diimine ligand allows for dual binding, intercalation and covalent, as observed by melting temperature and relative viscosity measurements, as well as electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA). The mono-substituted dirhodium complexes are effective against HeLa and COLO-316 cell lines, with [Rh2(u-O2CCH3)2(n1-O2CCH3)(dppz)]+ being the most effective compound of the series. Results of the comet assay indicate that all of the monosubstituted complexes studied damage nuclear DNA, although in different degrees. The cytotoxic effect of these complexes is not affected by the presence of glutathione. The addition of the second diimine ligand hinders the ability of the complexes to damage DNA. The bis-substituted complexes are also slightly less cytotoxic than their mono-substituted congeners. Thus, the number of equatorial positions occupied by diimine ligands play a critical role in the mechanism of cytotoxicity of dirhodium(II,II) complexes. Finally, the results also demonstrate that improving the internalization of the dirhodium complexes can be achieved by co-incubation with cell penetrating peptides. This work provides a foundation for the preparation of new and more effective dirhodium complexes.