An introduction, background and research progress in the areas of antifolates, receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) inhbitors and antimitotic agents has been discussed. <br>Thymidylate synthase (TS), dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) and glycinamide ribonucleotide formyltransferase (GARFTase) are important folate dependent enzymes that are targets for cancer chemotherapy and the treatment of infectious diseases. Classical antifolates, in most cases, are substrates for folypoly-g-glutamate synthase (FPGS) and rely on folate transporter systems to enter cells. As a part of this study, twenty-eight compounds were designed on the basis of existing clinically active compounds and crystal structures, synthesized and evaluated as single and/or muliple targeted classical and nonclassical antifolates to decrease toxicity and improve the activity and selectivity of existing therapeutic agents. In addition, these structures provides an extension to the structure activity relationship in the antifolate area. <br>RTK inhibitors and antimitotic agents are important antitumor agents and are extensively used in the clinic for the treament of various types of cancers. Pgp overexpression is one of the common reasons for drug resistance to existing antitumor agents and consequently the reason for some chemotherapeutic failures. A furo[2,3-d]pyrimidine compound was discovered to have dual RTK inhibitory activity along with antimitotic activity that circumvent pgp over expression. Antimitotic activity via the binding at the colchicine site is one of the mechanisms of action. Molecular modelling and biological evaluation suggest the importance of conformational restriction for activity. Fifty-seven furo[2,3-d]pyrimidines and six thieno[2,3-d]pyrimidines were designed on the basis of crustal structures and synthesized as potential RTK inhibitors with antimitotic antitumor activity. Four pyrrolo[2,3-d]pyrimidines were designed and synthesized as antimitotic anticancer agents that also reverse pgp action. / Mylan School of Pharmacy and the Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences / Medicinal Chemistry / PhD / Dissertation

Since its discovery, it was appreciated that the antifolate pemetrexed had multiple targets within folate metabolism. This laboratory was instrumental in showing that pemetrexed elicited its primary action as a thymidylate synthase inhibitor. Unusual for an antifolate, pemetrexed showed significant clinical activity against malignant pleural mesothelioma and non-small cell lung cancer. Accordingly, the FDA recently issued first-line approvals for pemetrexed in these diseases, leading us to question whether the effects of pemetrexed on other folate-dependent targets could explain this atypical clinical activity of the drug. Studies in this dissertation showed that in addition to thymidylate synthase inhibition, pemetrexed was also an inhibitor of aminoimidazolecarboxamide ribonucleotide formyltransferase (AICART), the second folate- dependent enzyme of de novo purine synthesis. Consequent of AICART inhibition, pemetrexed caused robust activation of a key energy-sensing regulatory enzyme of the PI3K-AKT signal transduction pathway, AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK). AMPK activation resulted from xx accumulation of the AMP-mimetic, ZMP, behind the AICART block. Constituents of the PI3K- AKT cascade are frequently deregulated in human carcinomas, uncoupling nutrient supply from proliferative capacity. Therefore, interventions that reinstate control over aberrant signaling along this axis, such as AMPK activation, are of significant cancer therapeutic interest. The cellular consequences of AMPK activation in response to pemetrexed were assessed. In particular, effects on the downstream target of PI3K-AKT signaling, the mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1), were studied. Unlike targeted mTORC1 inhibitors, such as rapamycin and its analogs, pemetrexed-mediated activation of AMPK also signaled to mTOR- independent controlling elements of protein and lipid synthesis, highlighting additional benefits of AMPK activating agents that extend beyond effects on mTOR signaling. We therefore propose that the unusual activity of pemetrexed in mesothelioma and non-small cell lung cancer is due in part to effects on signaling processes downstream of AMPK activation. These findings present a novel approach to AMPK activation secondary to an AICART block, define pemetrexed as a molecularly targeted agent, and ultimately extend the utility of antifolates beyond their traditional function.

No description available.

A targeted approach to the development of antifolate therapies has been sought for many years. Central to the success of such development is an understanding of the molecular mechanisms dictating the sensitivity of cells to antifolates and the fundamental differences of these processes between normal and neoplastic phenotypes. This dissertation addressed transcriptional mechanisms and cell-signaling events responsible for the efficacy of antifolate therapies. Transcriptional processes and cell signaling pathways are often aberrant in neoplastic tissues, providing a potential point of distinction between a normal and neoplastic cellular state. Folylpolyglutamate synthetase (FPGS) catalyzes the formation of poly-γ-glutamate derivatives of folates and antifolates, which permits intracellular retention and accumulation of these compounds. The mouse fpgs gene uses two distant promoters to produce functionally distinct isozymes in a tissue-specific pattern. We questioned how the two promoters were differentially controlled. An analysis of DNA methylation and histone post-translational modifications across the length of the mouse fpgs gene showed that epigenetic mechanisms contributed to the tissue-specific control of the upstream (P1), but not the downstream (P2) fpgs promoter. RNAPII complexes and general transcription factors were present over P1 only when P1 was transcribed, but these components were present over P2 in most tissues, and promoter-proximal pausing was evident in brain. Clear promoter occlusion was found over P2 in liver. These studies concluded that tissue-specific coordination of dual promoters required multiple interacting controls. The mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) controls protein translation initiation, and is central to a cell-signaling pathway rich in tumor suppressor and oncogenic proteins. mTOR dysregulation is a common feature of several human cancers and inhibition of this protein has been sought as an ideal cancer drug target. We have determined that antifolates inhibiting the two folate-dependent steps of purine synthesis (GART or AICART) activate AMP-dependent protein kinase (AMPK) and inhibit mTOR. The mechanism of AMPK stimulation appears to be mediated by either nucleotide depletion (GART inhibitors), or ZMP accumulation (AICART inhibitors). These studies discovered a new mechanism for antifolates that surprisingly defines them as molecularly targeted therapeutics.

La dihydrofolate réductase humaine (DHFRh) est une enzyme essentielle à la prolifération cellulaire. Elle réduit le dihydrofolate en tétrahydrofolate, un co-facteur impliqué dans la biosynthèse des purines et du thymidylate. La DHFRh est une cible de choix pour des agents de chimiothérapie comme le méthotrexate (MTX), inhibant spécifiquement l’enzyme ce qui mène à un arrêt de la prolifération et ultimement à la mort cellulaire. Le MTX est utilisé pour le traitement de plusieurs maladies prolifératives, incluant le cancer. La grande utilisation du MTX dans le milieu clinique a mené au développement de mécanismes de résistance, qui réduisent l’efficacité de traitement. La présente étude se penche sur l’un des mécanismes de résistance, soit des mutations dans la DHFRh qui réduisent son affinité pour le MTX, dans le but de mieux comprendre les éléments moléculaires requis pour la reconnaissance de l’inhibiteur au site actif de l’enzyme. En parallèle, nous visons à identifier des variantes plus résistantes au MTX pour leur utilisation en tant que marqueurs de sélection en culture cellulaire pour des systèmes particuliers, tel que la culture de cellules hématopoïétiques souches (CHS), qui offrent des possibilités intéressantes dans le domaine de la thérapie cellulaire. Pour étudier le rôle des différentes régions du site actif, et pour vérifier la présence d’une corrélation entre des mutations à ces régions et une augmentation de la résistance au MTX, une stratégie combinatoire a été dévelopée pour la création de plusieurs banques de variantes à des résidus du site actif à proximité du MTX lié. Les banques ont été sélectionnées in vivo dans un système bactérien en utilisant des milieux de croissance contenant des hautes concentrations de MTX. La banque DHFRh 31/34/35 généra un nombre considérable de variantes combinatoires de la DHFRh hautement résistantes au MTX. Les variantes les plus intéressantes ont été testées pour leur potentiel en tant que marqueur de sélection dans plusieurs lignées cellulaires, dont les cellules hématopoïétiques transduites. Une protection complète contre les effets cytotoxiques du MTX a été observée chez ces cellules suite à leur infection avec les variantes combinatoires. Pour mieux comprendre les causes moléculaires reliées à la résistance au MTX, des études de structure tridimensionnelle de variantes liées au MTX ont été entreprises. La résolution de la structure de la double variante F31R/Q35E lié au MTX a révélé que le phénotype de résistance était attribuable à d’importantes différences entre le site actif de la double variante et de l’enzyme native, possiblement dû à un phénomème dynamique. Une compréhension plus générale de la reconnaissance et la résistance aux antifolates a été réalisée en comparant des séquences et des structures de variantes de la DHFR résistants aux antifolates et provenant de différentes espèces. En somme, ces travaux apportent de nouveaux éléments pour la comprehension des intéractions importantes entre une enzyme et un ligand, pouvant aider au développement de nouveaux antifolates plus efficaces pour le traitement de diverses maladies. De plus, ces travaux ont généré de nouveaux gènes de résistance pouvant être utilisés en tant que marqueurs de sélection en biologie cellulaire. / Human dihydrofolate reductase (hDHFR) is an enzyme that is essential to cell proliferation. It reduces dihydrofolate to tetrahydrofolate, an important cofactor involved in purine and thymidylate biosynthesis. hDHFR is a choice target for chemotherapeutic drugs like methotrexate (MTX), which specifically inhibits the enzyme, stopping cell proliferation and leading to cellular death. MTX is used for the treatment of many proliferative diseases, including cancers. Widespread use of MTX has lead to the development of resistance mechanisms appear which impair treatment efficiency. The present work focuses on a mechanism of resistance, namely mutations in hDHFR that reduce its affinity for MTX, to better understand the underlying mechanisms of inhibitor recognition at the active site of the enzyme. In parallel, we aim at identifying the most MTX-resistant variants to offer novel selectable markers for particular cell culture systems, such as hematopoietic cell culture, which offer important perspectives for cellular therapy. To study the role of different regions of the hDHFR active site, and to verify if a correlation exists between mutations in these regions and increased resistance to MTX, a combinatorial strategy was developed enabling the creation of several hDHFR variant libraries at active site residues located in proximity to bound MTX. The libraries were selected in vivo in a bacterial system using culture media containing high concentration of the inhibitor. One library in particular, hDHFR 31/34/35, yielded a considerable number of highly MTX-resistant combinatorial hDHFR variants. The most interesting candidates were tested for their potential as selectable markers in various cell lines, including transduced hematopoietic cells. Complete protection from MTX-cytotoxicity was obtained for these cells following infection with the combinatorial variants. To better understand the molecular causes of MTX resistance, resolution of the crystal structures of variant proteins in presence of MTX was attempted. Resolution of the F31R/Q35E double variant revealed that the resistance phenotype was related to important differences in the active site relative to WT, possibly attributable to a dynamic motion effect. A more general comprehension of antifolate recognition and resistance was achieved by sequence and structural comparison of antifolate-resistant DHFR variants from different species. Overall, our work contributes to the better understanding of enzyme-inhibitor interactions, which could provide new insights into the development of more efficient clinical therapies. In addition, this work has yielded novel drug-resistance genes useful as selectable markers for cellular biology.

No description available.