A fifteen-year plan has been developed for cobia (Rachycentron canadum) aquaculture in Brazil. Guidelines are recommended for implementing reachable goals within a reasonable time frame, taking into consideration current status of technology development, environmental parameters, logistics and market. This plan reports potentialities, constraints and outlines the infrastructure and operational needs of a vertically integrated (hatchery and growout) cobia aquaculture industry in Brazil. Fingerlings availability, manpower, feeds among others essential requirements are evaluated and discussed. A pilot-scale operation plan including risk and financial analysis is also presented for the early development stages of the project. Asian countries, especially China, Taiwan and Vietnam, where approximately 50,000 tons are produced per year, currently dominate cobia aquaculture. Although production is expanding rapidly, combined yielding is still incipient. By 2025, an increasing global population is expected to raise seafood demand on 37% (FAO, 2010) and this plan is intended to profit from it. Therefore, the aim is to supply 2.5% of the global aquaculture marine fish demand by 2025, which will be approximately 66,750 tons of cobia per year according to our projections.

This thesis contains five chapters dealing with different aspects of the social relations of aquaculture development in South and Southeast Asia. This analysis is presented with reference to a series of qualitative empirical studies conducted in Vietnam, Bangladesh and Thailand, and challenges conventional narratives relating to the causes, effects and significance of different forms of aquaculture development. Chapter 1 compares the impacts associated with projects intended to promote pro-poor forms of fish culture with the impacts of commercial forms of aquaculture originating in the private sector, and examines complementarities between the two forms of development. It finds that the latter form of aquaculture development, which it terms ‘immanent’, has generally resulted in far more significant economic impacts that the former, which it terms ‘interventionist’. Impacts occur particularly through the creation of employment in associated value chains, although some caution must be exercised in equating these effects with reductions in poverty. The conditions under which immanent aquaculture development is able to take place are elaborated. Chapter 2 provides a critical evaluation of the private sector development (PSD) discourse adopted under the post-Washington consensus. This is achieved with reference to a detailed comparative study of the establishment of hatcheries for mono-sex tilapia in Thailand and Pangasius catfish in Vietnam. This exercise shows the transfer of technical knowledge from public institutions to actors in the private sector to have been largely informal in both cases. The subsequent establishment of hatchery enterprises has also been shaped by culturally specific patterns of economic behaviour that go unrecognised by champions of PSD. The chapter cautions against taking the existence of causal links between increased economic activity and reductions in poverty for granted. Chapter 3 examines patterns of development associated with the extraordinary expansion of the Pangasius catfish industry in Vietnam. It concludes that the ability of catfish producers to access a range of key production factors including land and credit has been mediated by relationships between individuals and the state and its associated institutions, as has access to some markets and services. As a result, the integration of producers into global markets has tended to reinforce existing class relations rather than radically transforming the rural class structure. Chapter 4 evaluates the likely outcomes of governance by third party certification for Pangasius producers in Vietnam and Bangladesh. Widespread insistence on compliance with emerging standards by Northern retailers will have little impact on Bangladeshi producers at present given their domestic orientation, but will probably involve severe consequences for smaller Vietnamese producers who will struggle to comply due to their unfavourable organisation of production and lack of integration. Although Pangasius production in Bangladesh appears more ecologically sustainable than its Vietnamese counterpart, the manner in which standards are formulated means that these advantages are unlikely to be recognised or rewarded. It is also concluded that standards will have limited impact on the industry’s environmental performance in Vietnam. With reference to the literature on agricultural growth and two case studies of aquaculture in Mymensingh, Bangladesh, Chapter 5 argues that commercially oriented quasi-capitalist forms of aquaculture have far greater capacity to alleviate poverty and enhance food security at the national level than the quasi-peasant forms traditionally promoted by development projects. The majority of poverty impact associated with aquaculture is demonstrated to derive from employment in associated value chains and service provision, with likely horizontal benefits also created in the rural non-farm economy via consumption linkages. By contrast, forms of aquaculture traditionally considered ‘small-scale’ and ‘pro-poor’ are shown to be beyond the reach of the majority of the rural poor, and to yield limited positive social externalities, although their role in countering the seasonal financial pressures associated with irrigated rice cultivation is shown to be significant. The conclusion of the thesis summarises key findings presented in preceding chapters, elaborates appropriate methodologies to guide future research on aquaculture development, and sets out a research and policy agenda which identifies work in a number of key areas as priorities for further attention.

The choice of a suitable site for any aquaculture practice is a critical decision to make since it has a large impact on the economic profitability of the venture, considering the fact that location defines the amount of capital needed, production costs, yield and access to market. The limited public and private sector support for small-scale aquaculture can be optimized if farms are zoned into areas with relatively similar performance and needs. Considering the high rate at which aquaculture is increasing globally and its consequent impact on the environment, it is projected that improvements will be made in the practices employed in aquaculture. As these improvements are made, there is the need for the review of the location of aquaculture infrastructure and services in order to increase the productivity of the sector. Also, aquaculture statistics such as location of farms and production estimates are fundamental to policy making and development planning at both national and global levels. Aquaculture statistics are however chronically scanty or unreliable in developing countries such as Ghana. Thus, the goal of this study was to show the relative suitability of areas in Ghana for aquaculture and identify the key variables to be considered in the development (including improvement of existing farms) of the aquaculture sector of the country. I used satellite imagery and GIS data in combination with field observations and questionnaires, to develop a map of the feasibility of pond aquaculture in Ghana and provide a reliable estimate of the number of ponds, their areas, productivity and aggregate production in the country. The main factors that have influenced the current distribution of pond aquaculture in Ghana are population density (indicating the availability of markets, input and labor) and proximity to stream and road networks. My results show a gross underestimation of the number of fish ponds in the country and smaller sizes of ponds than existing records suggest. The average water depth of ponds in Ghana is only half of the recommended depth which explained over 80% of the variation in productivity among farms. I estimated the contribution of ponds to domestic fish production to be two to three times what has been previously reported, but still well below the potential. The results of this study will be vital to current national and international efforts to improve aquaculture enterprises in Ghana. / Master of Science

The potential for aquaculture development to make up for an annual 400,000mt shortfall in domestic fish supply was investigated. This involved an overview of the sector to determine its trends and operations and identifying strengths and constraints, a financial viability assessment of the sector, based on mode and levels of operation of existing farms, an assessment of the market and trade for cultured fish with a focus on Oreochromis niloticus, and finally, a GIS approach to update and reassess the potential for aquaculture development in Ghana. Data were obtained from both primary and secondary sources, the former, via fish farmer, dealers and consumer questionnaire surveys. Results of the study showed that interests in fish farming continue to grow with an overall annual average growth rate of 16% since 2000. The existing farms, 1300 in number were however very small with a mean farm size of 0.36ha and a median 0.06ha of which commercial farms accounted for less than 3%. Based on sizes, mode of operation and levels of input and output, five subsistence farm types were identified. Mean production from these pond-based farms ranged from 1436kg/ha/yr- to 4,423kg/ha/yr while that of a medium sized intensive commercial pond farm was 45,999kg/ha/yr. Commercial farming accounted for about 75% of 2006 aquaculture production. The main strength identified was the growing interest in both commercial and non-commercial fish farming and the main constraints were lack of quality seed, low levels of technical support and of knowledge in fish farming practices among non-commercial farmers. Net profits of commercial farms ranged from GH¢ 3,341 (US$3480)/ha/yr to GH¢ 51,444 (US$ 53,587)/ha/yr with payback from 1 to 4yrs, IRR at 35% to 105% and NPV from GH¢ 5,898 to GH¢ 236,412. By contrast, only two of the five non-commercial farm types made positive net returns ranging, from GH¢158 to GH¢1100/ha/yr, with minimum payback period of 14yrs, NPVs of less than 1 and the best IRR being just 4%, when initial capital requirements are full costed. Uncosted family labour inputs and negligible land opportunity costs improved viabilities for two farm types, where net returns/ha/yr increased by more than 50%, minimum payback dropped to 2 years, NPV from GH¢ 4839 to GH¢ 9330 and minimum IRR of 45%. Main constraints identified as affecting the profitability of subsistence farming were the relatively low prices of fish and the low levels of output which could be improved through better farming practices. From the market survey, a huge market potential for tilapia was identified with a current supply deficit of 41,000mt. The most preferred sizes by consumers and with potentially good market price for traders were those weighing at least 200g. For dealers, trading in cultured fish was found to be more profitable than trading wild capture tilapia because of lower wholesaler prices, gross profit margins were GH¢ 0.49/kg and GH¢ 0.25/kg respectively. Preference for tilapia was influenced by taste, availability, and its perceived health benefit. A key constraint to the sector was poor post-harvest handling and preservation of the fish resulting in shorter shelf life. From the GIS study, 2% (3,692 km2) of available land area was identified as very suitable for subsistence and about 0.2% (313.8km2) for commercial farming. A further 97.4% and 84.0% were identified as suitable for subsistence and commercial farming respectively. Areas with potential for cage culture were also identified, which were largely in the southern and mid-sections of the country. The overall conclusions are that based on natural resource requirements, market potential and financial viability, Ghana has the potential to totally make up the shortfall in domestic fish supply through aquaculture production. The current 400,000mt shortfall in domestic fish production can be achieved by 2020 by increasing overall aquaculture production by 60% per annum.

Thesis (MA (Geography and Environmental Studies))--University of Stellenbosch, 2006. / The Rural Aquaculture Development Programme (RADP) of the Division of Aquaculture at Stellenbosch University (DASU) has the objective of socio-economic development of farm workers and rural communities from previously disadvantaged communities through the provision of opportunities for sustainable economic development by establishing small-scale fish-farming systems on irrigation dams. The Small-Scale Aquaculture Farming Systems (SSAFS) is an initiative of RADP. DASU intends implementing 20 new projects by the end of 2005, 100 by 2010 and at least 200 by 2020. Thus far, sites which can accommodate 25 projects have been identified. The owners of the land on which these 25 possible projects are located are being contacted to gain permission to use the sites for the SSAFS. It is possible that some of the owners of the sites will not allow them to be used so that not all 25 projects will necessarily be implemented. At present the predominant search method employed by DASU to find new sites involves two steps. Initially knowledge is acquired through word of mouth about dams that may be suitable. Personnel then drive to these dams for further inspection, to see if they are indeed suitable. This method of search is clearly both expensive and time-consuming. Geographical information systems (GIS) have as yet not been considered as an alternative and/or supplementary site selection method for the SSAFS. GIS tools and principles can reduce both expenses and time in locating sites by reducing the number of dams to be visited to only those that are optimal (i.e. they present the least risk of the SSAFS projects failing). A new site selection methodology using GIS was developed which is faster and less expensive than existing site selection methods. The GIS site selection methodology revolves around the isolation and selection of dams in the Berg and Breede River water management areas, based on their ability to fulfil certain parameters of critical variables comprising dam dimensions, environmental issues, distance measures and site security, according to a priority hierarchy, that determine a successful site for trout farming according to methods employed by the SSAFS. Once this methodology was produced, it was presented to five people who are directly involved with the SSAFS as well as four others who are not involved with the SSAFS but who might find the methodology useful, to determine whether they hold that the methodology is indeed better than existing search methodologies. Those who were presented the GIS site selection methodology felt that it is very useful and that it could be employed in future to make more informed choices when locating new sites for the SSAFS as well as other aquacultural enterprises.