The use of airborne remote sensing data for archaeological prospection is not a novel concept, but it is one that has been brought to the forefront of current work in the discipline of landscape archaeology by the increasing availability and application of airborne laser scanning data (ALS). It is considered that ALS, coupled with imaging of the non-visible wavelengths using digital spectral sensors has the potential to revolutionise the field of archaeological remote sensing, overcoming some of the issues identified with the most common current technique of oblique aerial photography. However, as with many methods borrowed from geographic or environmental sciences, archaeologists have yet to understand or utilise the full potential of these sensors for deriving archaeological feature information. This thesis presents the work undertaken between 2008-11 at Bournemouth University that aimed to assess the full information content of airborne laser scanned and digital spectral data systematically with respect to identifying archaeological remains in non-alluvial environments. A range of techniques were evaluated for two study areas on Salisbury Plain, Wiltshire (Everleigh and Upavon) to establish how the information from these sensors can best be extracted and utilised. For the Everleigh Study Area archive airborne data were analysed with respect to the existing transcription from archive aerial photographs recorded by English Heritage's National Mapping Programme. At Upavon, spectral and airborne laser scanned data were collected by the NERC Airborne Research and Survey Facility to the specifications of the project in conjunction with a series of ground-based measures designed to shed light on the contemporary environmental factors influencing feature detectability. Through the study of visual and semi-automatic methods for detection of archaeological features, this research has provided a quantitative and comparative assessment of airborne remote sensing data for archaeological prospection, the first time that this has been achieved in the UK. In addition the study has provided a proof of concept for the use of the remote sensing techniques trialled in temperate grassland environments, a novel application in a field previously dominated by examples from alluvial and Mediterranean landscapes. In comparison to the baseline record of the Wiltshire HER, ALS was shown to be the most effective technique, detecting 76% of all previously know features and 72% of all the total number of features recorded in the study. Combining the spectral data from both January and May raised this total to 83% recovery of all previously known features, illustrating the value of multi-sensor survey. It has also been possible to clarify the strengths and weaknesses of a wide range of visualisation techniques through detailed comparative analysis and to show that some techniques in particular local relief modelling (ALS) and single band mapping (digital spectral data) are more suited to the aims of archaeological prospection than others, including common techniques such as shaded relief modelling (ALS) and True Colour Composites (digital spectral data). In total the use of “non-standard” or previously underused visualisation techniques was shown to improve feature detection by up to 18% for a single sensor type. Investigation of multiple archive spectral acquisitions highlighted seasonal differences in detectability of features that had not been previously observed in these data, with the January spectral data allowing the detection of 7% more features than the May acquisition. A clearer picture of spectral sensitivity of archaeological features was also gained for this environment with the best performing spectral band lying in the NIR for both datasets (706-717nm) and allowing detection c.68% of all the features visible across all the wavelengths. Finally, significant progress has been made in the testing of methods for combining data from different airborne sensors and analysing airborne data with respect to ground observations, showing that Brovey sharpening can be used to combine ALS and spectral data with up to 87% recovery of the features predicted by transcription from the contributing source data. This thesis concludes that the airborne remote sensing techniques studied have quantifiable benefit for detection of archaeological features at a landscape scale especially when used in conjunction with one another. The caveat to this is that appropriate use of the sensors from deployment, to processing, analysis and interpretation of features must be underpinned by a detailed understanding of how and why archaeological features might be represented in the data collected. This research goes some way towards achieving this, especially for grass-dominated environments but it is only with repeated, comparative analyses of these airborne data in conjunction with environmental observations that archaeologists will be able to advance knowledge in this field and thus put airborne remote sensing data to most effective use.

It has long been known that areas such as Cheshire, Lincolnshire and Essex were intensely exploited for salt in the Iron Age and Romano-British periods. Previous research has tended to focus on the eastern coast of Britain, with less attention being paid to other potential salt-producing areas. In previous studies in southern Britain, much emphasis has been placed on the distribution of salt and the ‘equipment’ used to produce and potentially transport salt - briquetage. Much less attention has been paid to the production process. This research project directly addresses this imbalance, by placing the emphasis on to the study of the production sites, and by creating and analysing a new dataset to contextualise sites using a holistic perspective. The analysis of salt-production sites has redefined the archaeological terminology for salt production, and has critically evaluated how these sites have been incorporated into the archaeological record. The re-categorisation of the archaeological remains on a site by site basis has enabled the formation of a comprehensive dataset for the first time. This has enabled a regional and chronological comparison of salt-production in southern Britain to be undertaken. The analysis has shown that despite problems of incorrect perceptions of salt production practices, inconsistent recording and categorisation, and severe site damage by human and natural forces, it is possible, to inject concepts of ‘agency’ and ‘identity’ into these sites by exploring evidence of technological choice and use of space. It was possible to identify distinctive ‘working areas’ containing features (hearths and brine tanks) where the main stages of salt-production were carried out. New ‘Modes of Salt-Production’ have been created in order to compare different methods of organisation and ‘site management’ across time and space. These modes enable a new approach about salt-production to be made set in the wider context of supply networks and specific consumer markets. This research has shown that there were significant regional and chronological variations in salt-production; with three main areas of activity identified in Somerset, Dorset and Kent. The most significant chronological change was the substantial increase in salt-production during the 1st century A.D. followed by its decline in the 2nd century A.D in Kent and Dorset. However, this was not the case in Somerset, where the dominant period of salt-production occurred between the 2nd and 4th centuries A.D. The identification of regional trends in the scale and organisation of production, as well as the rich diversity of sites, shows that producers adapted to changes in the supply and consumption of salt over time. Considerably more salt would have been required to supply the growing population in the 1st century A.D and this encouraged the creation of many new production sites. However, the diversity in site character suggests that there was little tight control of coastal salt-production sites at that time. It is argued that instead, focus was placed upon the exploitation of salt from inland brine springs in Cheshire and Worcestershire. This is evidenced in the organisation, technology and creation of military supply bases close to these sites. Instead, it is argued that the Roman invasion formalised and expanded existing supply networks from coastal salt-production sites, in addition to creating new inland networks. This resulted in the creation of more formal ‘production and/or distribution centres. It is also probable that the emergence of uniform salt-production sites in Somerset in the later Roman period, reflects that this area had become predominant for the supply of salt to major ‘consumer sites such as legionary fortresses and the larger towns.

No description available.

It is a well-known fact that Libya is a country which has received very little serious study in the field of Islamic art and aroheaology. In Libya most research and study in art and archeaology has been centred on the Greek and Roman heritag+e$ and even the prehistoric era has received considerably more attention than the Islamic period. In the past ten years, howeverg excavations have been carried out in some Islamic sites both in the east and south of the country, yet so many other sites remain unexcavated and unsurveyed. The area of the Jabal Nafüsa is considered to be one of these important but neglected regions. The impetus behind this thesis, therefore, is to contribute to the present knowledge and it aims at paving the way for those who intend to go further by studying the remains of this area in greater detail. The other purpose of this thesis is to throw some light on some Islamic sites which should receive priority when carrying out excavations in the Jabal NaMsa. One obstacle that meets the scholar is to establish the historical background relative to the area of study. In the Jabal Nafüsa the historical information that we possess is scarce and sometimes obscure. This thesis contains an attempt to study the history of this area, especially concerning the first centuries of the Islamic era. Analogy and comparison were applied in order to form the historical background needed for studying some old Islamic monuments in the Jabal NafUsa. In chapters two, three and four, the emphasis is apparent on studying architecture and decorations. In the field of architecture a detailed study was applied to some Islamic remains in the area. These selected monuments reveal the variety of architectural features in the Jabal. Again comparative examples show the outaide influence on the Jabal and in addition architectural oharacteristics of local origin could be pointed out. The same method was followed when discussing the decorations which were found in some of the mosques mentioned. Comparison between these decorations and other similar dated examples made it possible to see the influence of other decorations found in different parts of the Islamic world. In chapter five the study of some mosques in Tmizda area has revealed new elements represented in the Christian and Roman influence on the Jabal. Chapter six is devoted to inscriptions which were found in various mosques in the Jabal Nafffsa. Comparative material helped in studying their style as well as suggesting an approximate date concerning the inscriptions of the Jabal. Finally this thesis could be considered as a humble attempt to illustrate some aspects of the Jabal Nafnsa, not only in respect to its importance in Islamic studies, but also in connection to other areas of study upon which some questions have been raised throughout the thesis.

Using both simulation and reconstruction experiments, this research investigates the archaeo-rnetallurgical evidence for copper smelting during the Late Bronze/Early Iron Age at Timna, Israel. Historical and ethnographic descriptions of copper smelting are examined in order to suggest how the ancient furnace remains may have been operated. A review of previous copper smelting experiments is presented. Six campaigns of smelting experiments have been completed to evaluate better the major operational variables. The emphasis of this research was the duplication of' the ancient metallurgical products using appropriate materials and techniques. The furnace dimensions were based on the archaeological remains from Timna Site 2. Arrangements of one, two and three tuyeres were tested. Several types of manually operated bellows were compared. Molten slag tapped from the furnace was made to exhibit structures similar to those found at Timna. The copper produced from the smelting experiments contained a high proportion of iron. Refining was necessary to approach the chemical composition and physical appearance of ancient copper specimens. Further experiments were conducted to cast piano-convex, bar and oxhide-shaped copper ingots. In the laboratory, modern materials and analytical methods were gradually replaced for the proposed copper smelting recoristructions. During September 1981, two experimental reconstructioris were conducted under primitive conditions at Timna Site 2. The metallurgical products from the smelting experiments were analysed using emission spectrometry (ICP), x-ray diffraction and visual-light microscopy. Trace element partitioning during copper smelting and refining is further studied. It is concluded that improvements in bellows efficiency allowed increased furnace volumes with greater copper production throughout the Bronze Age. A process-related typology for tapped slags is proposed. Piano-convex copper ingots do not represent primary smelting products, but rather secondary refined aggregates intended for trade.

This thesis attempts to present for the first time a detailed corpus and die-study of two major Roman coinages of the third century AD, the issues of the mints of Antioch in Syria and Caesarea in Cappadocia from the reign of Gordian III (AD 238-44). The coinage of Antioch consisted of two series of radiates with Roman legends and three series of tetradrachms with Greek legends and 1000 specimens of the former and 318 of the latter are included in the die-study. The die-study of Caesarea includes 113 silver tridrachms, didrachms and drachms and 191 bronze coins in three denominations. There is a full discussion of the types, legends, weights, die-axes and metallic content of each issue and of the methodology used in the die-studies. The study starts by showing how the radiates of Antioch can be distinguished from those of Rome, something that has not been satisfactorily done before. The lack of a clearly explained method of distinguishing the products of these two mints has bedevilled all existing publications of these coins. The thesis also looks for the first time at the relationship between the striking of radiates and tetradrachms at Antioch, the former coins having traditionally been classed as `Roman' and the latter as `Greek imperial'. It is argued that the Greek legend issues of both mints should be regarded as much an imperial coinage as the radiates of Antioch. It is also shown that the dies for the coinage of Caesarea were produced by the same engravers as worked at Antioch, something that had not been noticed before. Further chapters examine chronological problems, the metal content of the silver coins of Gordian's reign, the evidence for their circulation in hoards and site finds and the historical events of Gordian's reign. These findings are summarized in the conclusion, which sets the coinages of Antioch and Caesarea in their historical context. The 50 plates illustrate all the obverse dies, except for the second series of radiates from Antioch.

The arms and armour discovered during the excavations at the Roman frontier city of Dura-Europos, Syria, by Belgian, French and American archaeologists between the wars constitute one of the most important but least studied assemblages of the kind ever found. Little of it has ever been published. Most of the finds can be associated with the events surrounding the final destruction of the city by the Sassanians, which can be dated to the mid-250s AD. This close dating of a large body of arms is unparalleled in the Roman Empire. It is also the only really large group of Roman armour from the whole of the Eastern Empire. Most of the arms were deposited in contexts which prove they belong to the Roman defenders, but a handful belong to the Persian attackers, not least an important iron helmet, the first well-dated Sassanian head-piece. Other items, such as the cane shields, are hard to definitely attribute to either side. The material is extremely rich and diverse, the special conditions of burial of many items preserving delicate organic elements including shield paintings and arrow fletchings, allowing a much better understanding of the technology and appearance of Roman weaponry. There are a number of unparalleled complete items, such as the famous scutum and the horse-armours. The size, preservation, close dating and Eastern provenance of the collection combine to give it unique value to military archaeologists. However, close study of the evidence for the historical context of the siege demonstrates that the archaeological remains left by the defenders cannot, as hoped, be linked with the copious documentary evidence from the site. We do not know the exact identity of the Roman units defending the city. The Roman weaponry is in many respects indistinguishable from that used on the European frontiers of the Empire. Were the defenders European expeditionary troops, or Eastern troops wearing identical equipment? The answer lies in further research into the archaeology of the Eastern army, whose weapons are rarely found. The Dura assemblage will be the yardstick against which new finds will be measured.

Resins were widely used in ancient Egypt for a variety of purposes, including as incense, as varnish, in cosmetic and ritual preparations and in mummification. However, as Egypt had virtually no internal sources, these resins would have been obtained through trade. Although Egypt's contacts with the south for resin are well-known, little is known of the Mediterranean resin trade. This study took a multidisciplinary approach, incorporating not only archaeological information, but also botanical data, chemical residue analysis and microscopic examination of pottery fabrics to find evidence of this trade. Each of the above mentioned usages was studied. Resins and resinous products subsequently identified included pistacia resin and pitch, Pinaceae resin, including coniferous pitch, cedar resin and cedar-scented products. These usages indicated a high level of demand for Mediterranean resins. Study of amphorae imported from Syria-Palestine to the site of Tell el- Amarna indicated a strong link between resin trade and Canaanite storage jars. The study of the distribution of these jars, in Egypt, Israel and on the contemporary shipwreck at Ulu Burun, Turkey, provided valuable information on Mediterranean resin trade.

This study aims to examine all aspects of Moroccan rock art and place it in an archaeological and environmental context. Almost 300 sites are now known but few have been studied fully. This work is the first overall analysis to be attempted. Data on climatic changes during the Holocene period, together with archaeological and faunal reports, provided the necessary background to the rock art. The distribution of engraved and painted sites in Morocco is very uneven. Animals were the most frequent themes, but a review of all the sites revealed great site and subject diversity. Four main types of engravings were Identified, their Characteristics described and their distribution plotted. Climatic fluctuations, new animal species, the introduction of meth weapons, the chariot and writing established a chronological framework. A critical appraisal of these events led to a tentative chronology for Moroccan rock art, thought here to have started around 2500 be. The situation of rock art sites showed that they were chosen for very specific reasons, some of them by nomadic pastoralists. Viewing rock art as a medium of communication, it was proposed that the images were messages defining territories, proclaiming ownership or commemorating heroes or battles. The images may have two levels of meaning: one easily understood by members of the group and by outsiders, the second, symbolic, less obviously comprehensible. Moroccan rock art was not an isolated phenomenon in north Africa. The rock art of Algeria, Libya and Mauritania showed both similarities and differences, IrnpMng a cultural link, albeit tenuous, between these countries. Available archaeological, environmental and rock art data revealed striking differences In information-availability between north and south Morocco. Archaeological research has established a chronologicaal nd cultural framework, in northern Morocco,to which rock art adds nothing. On the other hand, rock engravings of metal weapons are almost the only evidence of a Moroccan Bronze Age. In southern Morocco, the distribution of rock art sites reveals intensive human activity in an area little known from excavation. Rock art, archaeology and environment are thus related in this study to producea comprehensive picture of the past.

No description available.