<p>Tortoises appear to be successful in arid ecosystems, where they depend on primary production for their predominantly herbivorous diets. The low primary production of arid regions is exacerbated by priodic droughts, so that iteroparous species such as chelonians require mechanisms to overcome resource shortages. The smallest of all tortoises, Homopus signatus signatus, occurs in a dry winter rainfall area in northwestern South Africa that is threatened with aridification due to regional climate change. The overall aim of this study is to understand the ecology of H. s. signatus, particularly in reference to the importance of rainfall.</p>

<p>Tortoises appear to be successful in arid ecosystems, where they depend on primary production for their predominantly herbivorous diets. The low primary production of arid regions is exacerbated by priodic droughts, so that iteroparous species such as chelonians require mechanisms to overcome resource shortages. The smallest of all tortoises, Homopus signatus signatus, occurs in a dry winter rainfall area in northwestern South Africa that is threatened with aridification due to regional climate change. The overall aim of this study is to understand the ecology of H. s. signatus, particularly in reference to the importance of rainfall.</p>

Submitted by Maria Medeiros (maria.dilva1@ufcg.edu.br) on 2018-06-14T11:32:02Z No. of bitstreams: 1 TELMA LÚCIA BEZERRA ALVES - TESE (PPGRN) 2016.pdf: 11238465 bytes, checksum: 7f1bc917d37a959d86daf700437c86cd (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-06-14T11:32:02Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 TELMA LÚCIA BEZERRA ALVES - TESE (PPGRN) 2016.pdf: 11238465 bytes, checksum: 7f1bc917d37a959d86daf700437c86cd (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-02-25 / CNPq / A desertificação é um problema ambiental que atinge várias regiões no mundo, sendo definida como a degradação das terras nas zonas áridas, semiáridas e subúmidas resultante de vários fatores, incluindo variações climáticas e atividades humanas. O objetivo desse estudo foi avaliar o nível de degradação das terras (desertificação) no alto curso da bacia hidrográfica do Rio Paraíba, através da dinâmica temporal e espacial de aspectos climáticos, biofísicos e socioeconômicos. O alto curso da bacia hidrográfica engloba total ou parcialmente, a área de 18 municípios, distribuídos entre as microrregiões do Cariri Ocidental e Oriental do estado da Paraíba. Foram utilizados dados climáticos do período de 1950 a 2013 para as variáveis: precipitação pluvial e índice de aridez (Ia), dados de sensores orbitais - Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectro radiometer (MODIS), período de 2000 a 2013, visando à obtenção do albedo da superfície e do índice de vegetação ajustado ao solo (IVAS) e dados censitários (demográficos e agropecuários) para quantificação do índice socioeconômico e do nível de degradação na região. O teste de Mann-Kendall (MK) foi utilizado para identificação da tendência temporal das variáveis, ao nível de significância de α = 0,05, o método de Sen para quantificação da tendência e a krigagem para análise da dinâmica espacial das variáveis. Os principais resultados evidenciam que há uma tendência crescente da precipitação pluvial e decréscimo da aridez no alto curso da bacia como um todo, durante o período estudado. Pode-se inferir que estas condições não contribuem para desencadear o processo de degradação das terras (desertificação), sugerindo que as causas desse problema ambiental não são climáticas. A precipitação média anual aumenta na direção nordeste-noroeste da bacia, com mínimo (320 mm) em Cabaceiras e máximo (680 mm) nas localidades de Ouro Velho e Prata; o albedo da superfície e o índice de vegetação têm seus valores influenciados pela sazonalidade climática da região. A precipitação pluvial é o elemento que condiciona o aumento do índice de vegetação e diminuição do albedo da superfície, considerando-se que estas duas variáveis têm comportamento inverso. A região central do alto curso da bacia hidrográfica (municípios de Congo, Camalaú e Caraúbas) apresentou baixo índice de vegetação e elevado albedo da superfície, caracterizando possivelmente um processo de degradação das terras. Ao longo do período analisado (2000-2013), estas variáveis apresentaram tendência decrescente, mas não significativa, evidenciando um aumento pouco significativo da degradação das terras. Em relação ao índice socioeconômico geral de cada município – Isem observa-se que sete apresentaram “Moderada” degradação, dez “Baixa” degradação e apenas o município de Boqueirão apresentou situação de “Acentuada” degradação das terras. Os valores médios do Isem por município revelam que está havendo degradação das terras em todo o alto curso da bacia, porém em níveis Moderados e Baixos, sendo a região noroeste a área com maior pressão antrópica. Há uma tendência de aumento do índice socioeconômico - Iseb no alto curso da bacia hidrográfica com valor médio que indica uma situação de degradação “Moderada” das terras. Esse aumento é resultante do crescimento econômico, de programas sociais implantados e das melhorias nas condições de vida da população ao longo dos anos. / Desertification is an environmental problem that affects several regions in the world, defined as the land degradation of arid, semi-arid and sub-humid areas resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities. The aim of this study was to evaluate the level of land degradation (desertification) in the upper course of the watershed of Paraíba River, through the temporal and spatial dynamics of climatic, biophysical and socio-economic aspects. The upper reaches of the watershed encompasses all or part of the area of 18 municipalities, distributed among the micro-regions of Western and Eastern Cariri state of Paraiba. Period of climatic data were used in 1950 the 2013 for the variables: rainfall and aridity index (Ia), orbital data from sensors - MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectro radiometer), from 2000 to 2013, to obtain the surface albedo and Vegetation Index adjusted to the ground (SA VI) and census data (population and agricultural) to quantify the socio economic index and the level of degradation in the region. The Mann-Kendall test (MK) was used to identify the time trend variable, the level of significance o f α = 0.05, the Sen method to quantify the trend and Kriging for analyzing spatial dynamics of the variables. The main results show that there is an increasing trend of rainfall and decrease dryness on the upper course of the watershed as a whole, during the period studied. You can infer that these conditions do not contribute to trigger land degradation process (desertification), suggesting that the causes of this environmental problem is not climate. The average annual precipitation increases in the north-northwest direction of the watershed, with minimum (320 mm) in Cabaceiras and maximum (680 mm) in Ouro Velho and Prata localities; the surface albedo and vegetation index have their values influenced by the seasonality of the region. Rainfall is the element that determines the increase in vegetation index and decrease in surface albedo, considering that these two variables have opposite behavior. The central region of the upper course of the watershed (municipalities of Congo, Camalaú and Caraúbas) showe d a low rate of vegetation and high albedo surface, possibly featuring a land degradation process. Throughout the period analyzed (2000-2013), these variables showed a downward trend, but not significant, showing a slight increase of land degradation. Rega rding the general socioeconomic index of each municipality – Isem it is observed that seven had "moderate" degradation ten "Low" degradation and only the municipality of Boqueirão presented situation of "Severe" land degradation. The municipality by Isem average values reveal what's going on land degradation across the upper course of the watershed, but in Moderate and Low levels, and northwest region of the area with increased human pressure. There is a tendency to increase the socioeconomic index - Iseb in the upper course of the watershed with an average value indicating the degradation of situation "moderate" land. This increase is the result of economic growth, implemented social programs and improvements in the living conditions of the population over the years.

Water availability in the ecosystem is one of the most crucial environmental factors that determines global terrestrial biome distribution. However, aridity/humidity conditions in the geologic past are difficult to quantify, mainly owing to the lack of a proper parameter. By using modern global climatic data, we here examine five selected previously proposed aridity indices (AIs), in which the climatic variables involved, including both precipitation and temperature, are simple and likely available in studies of paleoclimatology and paleoecology, although with different degrees of uncertainty. They were first evaluated along the modern climatic zones of eastern China, with the main metric of Thornthwaite humidity index (HI) and with the supplementary reference of soil moisture index (SMI) and near-ground atmospheric relative humidity (RH). Then AIs and the mean annual precipitation (MAP) were further statistically compared with HI, SMI, and RH, respectively, based on 1189 monitored data sets from meteorological stations over the world. The results show that the Köppen aridity index (AIKöppen), expressed as mean annual precipitation divided by mean annual temperature plus a constant of 33, is the most accurate and precise index among all selected indices, supported by the highest correlation coefficient respectively to HI, SMI, and RH, three widely-employed major indicators sensitive to hydrological dynamics in climatology and meteorology. Specifically, AIKöppen does well mirror corresponding HI along four representative transects from North America, South America, Africa, and Australia, which cover the typical arid and humid climates and span the main terrestrial biome types. Moreover, our results also distinctly reveal that, as also shown by many studies on modern climate, precipitation alone is inadequate to measure the hydrological condition, because both temperature and evapotranspiration are two other critical factors that strongly influence water balance in the ecosystem, meanwhile evapotranspiration is mainly affected by temperature. Based on the validated AIKöppen, we briefly discuss the aridity/humidity condition in China during the middle Miocene. The results demonstrate that moisture did decrease westward, but it is also clear that western China in the middle Miocene appears not to have been as dry as previously thought, indicated by the AIKöppen values representing a sub-humid to humid climate.

Water availability in the ecosystem is one of the most crucial environmental factors that determines global terrestrial biome distribution. However, aridity/humidity conditions in the geologic past are difficult to quantify, mainly owing to the lack of a proper parameter. By using modern global climatic data, we here examine five selected previously proposed aridity indices (AIs), in which the climatic variables involved, including both precipitation and temperature, are simple and likely available in studies of paleoclimatology and paleoecology, although with different degrees of uncertainty. They were first evaluated along the modern climatic zones of eastern China, with the main metric of Thornthwaite humidity index (HI) and with the supplementary reference of soil moisture index (SMI) and near-ground atmospheric relative humidity (RH). Then AIs and the mean annual precipitation (MAP) were further statistically compared with HI, SMI, and RH, respectively, based on 1189 monitored data sets from meteorological stations over the world. The results show that the Köppen aridity index (AIKöppen), expressed as mean annual precipitation divided by mean annual temperature plus a constant of 33, is the most accurate and precise index among all selected indices, supported by the highest correlation coefficient respectively to HI, SMI, and RH, three widely-employed major indicators sensitive to hydrological dynamics in climatology and meteorology. Specifically, AIKöppen does well mirror corresponding HI along four representative transects from North America, South America, Africa, and Australia, which cover the typical arid and humid climates and span the main terrestrial biome types. Moreover, our results also distinctly reveal that, as also shown by many studies on modern climate, precipitation alone is inadequate to measure the hydrological condition, because both temperature and evapotranspiration are two other critical factors that strongly influence water balance in the ecosystem, meanwhile evapotranspiration is mainly affected by temperature. Based on the validated AIKöppen, we briefly discuss the aridity/humidity condition in China during the middle Miocene. The results demonstrate that moisture did decrease westward, but it is also clear that western China in the middle Miocene appears not to have been as dry as previously thought, indicated by the AIKöppen values representing a sub-humid to humid climate.

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(農学) / 甲第22477号 / 農博第2381号 / 新制||農||1074(附属図書館) / 学位論文||R2||N5257(農学部図書室) / 京都大学大学院農学研究科森林科学専攻 / (主査)准教授 舘野 隆之輔, 教授 北島 薫, 教授 德地 直子 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Agricultural Science / Kyoto University / DFAM

Streams are classified into perennial, intermittent, and ephemeral streams based on flow durations. Perennial stream is the basic network, while intermittent or ephemeral stream is the expanded network. Connection between perennial stream and base flow at the mean annual scale exists since one of the hydrologic functions of perennial stream is to deliver runoff even in low flow seasons. The partitioning of precipitation into runoff and evaporation at the mean annual scale, on the first order, is captured by the ratio of potential evaporation to precipitation (Ep/P called climate aridity index) based on the Budyko hypothesis. The primary focus of this thesis is the relationship between base flow and perennial stream density (Dp) in the Budyko framework. In this thesis, perennial stream density is quantified from the high resolution National Hydrography Dataset for 185 watersheds; the climate control (represented by the climate aridity index) on perennial stream density and on base flow is quantified; and the correlation between base flow and perennial stream density is analyzed. Perennial stream density declines monotonically with the climate aridity index, and an inversely proportional function is proposed to model the relationship between Dp and Ep/P. This monotonic trend of perennial stream density reconciles with the Abrahams curve, and the perennial stream density is only a small portion of the total drainage density. The dependences of base flow ratio (Qb/P) and the normalized perennial stream density on the climate aridity index follow a similar complementary Budyko-type curve. The correlation coefficient between iv the ratio of base flow to precipitation and perennial stream density is found to be 0.74. The similarity between the base flow and perennial stream density reveals the co-evolution between water balance and perennial stream network.

Drought is a climatic event regarding prolonged "drier than normal" conditions. Precipitation deficits, crop-moisture stress, soil-water unbalance, sudden stream flow cut-offs and low carrying capacity of ecosystems are responses to drought. Drought can occur in humid to arid climates, however, drought is more severe in arid and semi-arid areas due to the fact that in those distinctive areas, water resources are extremely limited and restricted. Additionally, local ecologies and ecosystems in arid regions are very fragile. Once a water competition occurs, critical services of ecosystems such as pure water, recreation, and land productivity will be threatened. This research focuses on prolonged drought events that have been occurring more frequently in a coastal province of South Central Vietnam – named Binh Thuan. The study area is distinctive because its climate is characterized as one of the driest provinces in Vietnam. Annual rainfall in the North and near the coast of the province is less than 800 mm per year. During 6 months of dry season, there is almost no rain, or less than 50 mm. Due to precipitation deficits and high surface temperatures in recent years, meteorological droughts have occurred more frequently, and lasted longer, thereby stressing water resources for vegetation, wildlife, households, and industry. The occurrence of prolonged droughts has constrained economic activities in the coastal areas, especially agriculture and aquaculture. Furthermore, a long duration of dry conditions coupled with unsustainable land management (such as overgrazing), "drought-sensitive" soils in areas with sand and barren lands may introduce and accelerate risks of desertification processes (land productivity deterioration and unable to recover). This research uses geospatial technologies to monitor drought severity and drought impacts on land use and land cover. Chapter 1 is a brief introduction and literature review of the drought context in Binh Thuan Province to place the research questions and objectives in content. Chapter 2 discusses the occurrence of meteorological droughts in Binh Thuan Province, then proposes climatic indices able to monitor this type of drought. Chapter 3 focuses on explaining and assessing uneven dry conditions that stressed vegetation health in the study area. This chapter investigates spatiotemporal distributions and frequencies of prolonged agricultural droughts using remotely sensed data and anomalies of precipitation distribution. Results indicate that coastal areas in the North of Binh Thuan are subject to severe droughts. Chapter 4 assesses human impacts on land management and practices in the study area during drought periods. Results show that in recent years (2010 to present), local governments and residents have implemented strategies to prevent sand dominance and to adapt to water shortages during dry seasons, such as vegetative cover, crop rotation with drought-tolerant plants and wind breaks. Accuracy was assessed using field data collected in the summer of 2016, in conjunction with Google Earth imagery. In summary, this dissertation enhances understanding of drought events and impacts in Binh Thuan Province by considering different types of drought - meteorological and agricultural drought, and interactions of drought and human impacts upon land management and land practices during dry periods. Furthermore, findings and results of this research have demonstrated the effectiveness of remotely sensed datasets, and other geospatial technologies, such as geographic information systems, in modeling drought severity and in examining efforts and drought-adaptive practices of local residents. This work is a valuable foundation on which further studies can build to support policy development to protect and reserve soil-land productivity in Binh Thuan and other coastal regions of Vietnam affected by prolonged droughts. / Doctor of Philosophy / Drought is a temporal climatic event with "drier than normal" conditions. While drought can occur in any climates, it can be more extreme in arid and semi-arid areas where annual rainfall and water resources are limited. Depending on types of drought, its presences and impacts may differ: (1) meteorological drought relates to a decrease of average rainfall/snowfall may resulting in moisture stress, (2) hydrological drought leads to a reduction of streamflow and groundwater, and (3) agricultural drought influences soil-water-crop balance or vegetation health. Prolonged drought – abnormally long duration of dry conditions, coupled with unsustainable management in water and land practice may cause losses of land productivity, promote soil erosion, and result in sand dominance in coastal areas. These land degradation processes can lead to "a desert-like condition" in impacted areas. This research concerns drought and its impacts in a coastal province in South central Vietnam, Binh Thuan. The study area is distinctive because its climate is characterized as one of the driest provinces in Vietnam. Annual rainfall in the North and near the coast is less than 800 mm per year, and during the 6 months of the dry season, there is almost no rain, or less than 50 mm. Due to precipitation deficits and high surface temperatures in recent years, meteorological droughts have occurred more frequently and lasted longer, stressing water resources for vegetation, wildlife, households, and industry. Additionally, unsustainable land management, such as overgrazing, coupled with movements of sand and barren lands from the coast inland, have accelerated the risks of land degradation. This research applies an integration of geospatial technologies for monitoring drought severity and impacts on land management and illustrates how local people have adapted to droughts.

Examination of bird assemblages along an environmental gradient which encompasses both climate and habitat change is needed if we are to better understand the potential effects of these changes for avians and the ecological process that depend upon them. Climate change is predicted to have a significant impact on deserts and desert margins, resulting in distributional shifts of entire ecosystems and new community associations. This study explores the probable responses of avian communities to increasing desertification. In general, species richness and numbers of birds in arid zones are low compared to more mesic areas. Different combinations of habitat types and the variety of patches in a landscape influence the diversity and community structures of avians in that landscape. The role of vegetation structure in avian habitat selection in semi-arid areas is dictated by horizontal habitat density as well as vertical structure. Although bird distribution is determined by habitat boundaries, most birds are flexible and can disperse across small habitat barriers. The hypothesis tested, was that bird species assemblages along an aridity gradient are affected primarily by rainfall and secondarily by habitat type. Assessing the impacts of rainfall and habitat on bird variables, such as species richness, abundance, diversity, biomass, and life history traits, were the objectives of the study. An east-west aridity gradient of 300 mm, stretching over 370 km, was chosen in central Namibia for the study area. The climate is harsh with localised rain and considerable daily fluctuations in temperature. Grasses, and trees and shrubs up to 7 m in height are the co-dominant life-forms. Surveys were conducted over three years; one winter and one summer survey in each year. Rainfall, seasons and vegetation height were recorded as environmental variables. Three structurally different habitat types were selected for stratified sampling: open areas, rivers and thickets. Open areas were dominated by grass; river refers to ephemeral dry river lines with mature trees; and thickets comprise woody shrubs and trees. At each site, the same three habitats were used for bird sampling, resulting in 15 sample units. Sampling took place on 51 discontinuous line transects of 1km in length and without a width limit. Univariate analyses included ANOVA and t-tests. Multivariate analyses consisted of cluster analysis, MRPP tests, indicator analysis, Shannon diversity index and NMS ordinations. NMS bi-plots were used to define avian community structures responding to aridity, habitat, migration and life history traits. The results showed that bird species richness, abundance, and diversity remained relatively constant across the aridity gradient, until they declined significantly once a certain aridity threshold was crossed at the most arid site. There were significantly more bird species and individual birds at the wetter sites than at the drier sites. Rivers contained more birds than thickened or open habitat types, suggesting the importance of riparian habitat types for maintaining avian diversity. The three more mesic sites included higher numbers of species from the nesting and feeding guilds, regardless of habitat type, than the two more arid sites. The aridity threshold had a significant effect on bird community structures: more migrant and nomadic species, and omnivore and insectivore species persisted in very arid conditions. From the results it was predicted that climate change will cause avian species to undergo range shifts from west to east, resulting in community composition changes and a reduction in diversity. Life history traits affect the adaptive capabilities of bird species and it is predicted that nomadism, flexibility in diet, and adaptability of nesting requirements will contribute to species persistence in the drier conditions predicted under current climate change scenarios. Dry river lines will act as refugia for avian diversity, but crucial habitat types that currently contain less diversity are also important for maintaining unique avian assemblages. / MSc (Environmental Sciences), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

Examination of bird assemblages along an environmental gradient which encompasses both climate and habitat change is needed if we are to better understand the potential effects of these changes for avians and the ecological process that depend upon them. Climate change is predicted to have a significant impact on deserts and desert margins, resulting in distributional shifts of entire ecosystems and new community associations. This study explores the probable responses of avian communities to increasing desertification. In general, species richness and numbers of birds in arid zones are low compared to more mesic areas. Different combinations of habitat types and the variety of patches in a landscape influence the diversity and community structures of avians in that landscape. The role of vegetation structure in avian habitat selection in semi-arid areas is dictated by horizontal habitat density as well as vertical structure. Although bird distribution is determined by habitat boundaries, most birds are flexible and can disperse across small habitat barriers. The hypothesis tested, was that bird species assemblages along an aridity gradient are affected primarily by rainfall and secondarily by habitat type. Assessing the impacts of rainfall and habitat on bird variables, such as species richness, abundance, diversity, biomass, and life history traits, were the objectives of the study. An east-west aridity gradient of 300 mm, stretching over 370 km, was chosen in central Namibia for the study area. The climate is harsh with localised rain and considerable daily fluctuations in temperature. Grasses, and trees and shrubs up to 7 m in height are the co-dominant life-forms. Surveys were conducted over three years; one winter and one summer survey in each year. Rainfall, seasons and vegetation height were recorded as environmental variables. Three structurally different habitat types were selected for stratified sampling: open areas, rivers and thickets. Open areas were dominated by grass; river refers to ephemeral dry river lines with mature trees; and thickets comprise woody shrubs and trees. At each site, the same three habitats were used for bird sampling, resulting in 15 sample units. Sampling took place on 51 discontinuous line transects of 1km in length and without a width limit. Univariate analyses included ANOVA and t-tests. Multivariate analyses consisted of cluster analysis, MRPP tests, indicator analysis, Shannon diversity index and NMS ordinations. NMS bi-plots were used to define avian community structures responding to aridity, habitat, migration and life history traits. The results showed that bird species richness, abundance, and diversity remained relatively constant across the aridity gradient, until they declined significantly once a certain aridity threshold was crossed at the most arid site. There were significantly more bird species and individual birds at the wetter sites than at the drier sites. Rivers contained more birds than thickened or open habitat types, suggesting the importance of riparian habitat types for maintaining avian diversity. The three more mesic sites included higher numbers of species from the nesting and feeding guilds, regardless of habitat type, than the two more arid sites. The aridity threshold had a significant effect on bird community structures: more migrant and nomadic species, and omnivore and insectivore species persisted in very arid conditions. From the results it was predicted that climate change will cause avian species to undergo range shifts from west to east, resulting in community composition changes and a reduction in diversity. Life history traits affect the adaptive capabilities of bird species and it is predicted that nomadism, flexibility in diet, and adaptability of nesting requirements will contribute to species persistence in the drier conditions predicted under current climate change scenarios. Dry river lines will act as refugia for avian diversity, but crucial habitat types that currently contain less diversity are also important for maintaining unique avian assemblages. / MSc (Environmental Sciences), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015