Thesis (M.A. (Tourism))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.

Thesis (M.A. (Tourism))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.

Festivals have become a global phenomenon and now serve as a platform to promote the leisure and tourism industry within a nation. These events have an undisputed economic effect – not only on the hosting community – but also on the global community. Despite the encouraging community support and the socio-economic impact and spin-offs that are generated by means of such events, the financing of art festivals remains an intricate issue. The fact remains that not all festivals are financially self-sustainable and so require extensive sponsorship in order to ensure the continuation of the event. Limited government funding available due to budget constraints curbs the financial support forthcoming from municipalities and so forces event organisers to seek alternative funding to ensure the survival and feasibility of events. This responsibility places an additional burden on event organisers and so necessitates the use of assessment tools in order to convince private and public institutions or individuals to invest in such events through sponsorships. During an extensive literature study, it became apparent that the need exists to re-assess fully the economic impact analysis of events. The literature revealed that varying models are used to conduct economic impact analyses. In order to establish a concise framework within which to conduct an economic assessment, it was decided to select only the most-used models – Computable General Equilibrium (CGE), Input-Output (I-O) and Social Accounting Matrix (SAM). The dilemma facing tourism economists is to determine which economic assessment approach is most effective as every methodology has its own advantages and disadvantages. In addition, the type and size of an event also plays a fundamental role when selecting an appropriate measuring tool. This research was further motivated because of the existing gap that exists in the South African context for no study has yet been conducted where the various models that assess economic impact have been applied to the collated data of the same event. This study thus aims to provide an overview and a comparison of competing and supplementing methodologies for modelling the regional economic dynamics and the impacts of events. It further investigates the manner in which regional CGE, I-O and SAM based (multiplier) models operate towards capturing the region-specific, inter-regional and multi-regional production, consumption and factor market patterns as result of expenditures incurred during events. An analysis of the virtues and the limitations of these economic assessment methodologies suggests that it may be the considerations such as the data collection/compilation, expected output, research objectives and costs involved that ultimately determine the choice of a specific modelling framework. While addressing the problem stated above, this study produced the following three articles that are now embodied in the work: * Article 1 - “Critical assessment of economic impact analyses of the ABSA Klein Karoo National Arts Festival”, and * Article 2 - “Critical assessment of economic impact analyses of the Aardklop National Arts Festival”. Article 2 investigated and compared the economic assessment results when applying specific constructed models, being the Social Accounting Matrix (SAM) and Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) for the appropriate provinces, to the available data obtained from previous surveys conducted at the 2010 ABSA Klein Karoo National Arts Festival and from the Aardklop National Arts Festival. The two articles indicated that when different models of assessment are applied to the same data set of an event, the economic impact results might differ significantly. This may serve as a warning to economic assessors, academics and researchers that economic impact results can be misleading and therefore the application thereof should be handled with the utmost care in order to avoid misinterpretations and misconceptions. * Article 3, “Assessing the economic impact of the Aardklop National Arts Festival: a feast of models to opt for – or not?” In this article, data from a visitor and business survey conducted at the 2010 Aardklop National Arts Festival was used in the analyses made by applying SAM, CGE and I-O regional models constructed for South Africa’s Northwest Province. Results from these analyses were then compared in order to give researchers and practitioners a better insight and clarity regarding which approach works best for the economic assessment of an arts festival. This article highlighted the fact that the measured economic impact results differ when various models that are applied to the same event. It also became evident that the most conservative economic impact was measured by an I-O model, followed with a higher SAM measurement, while CGE revealed the highest economic assessment. The most significant contribution of this study is embedded in the fact that within the South African context – and even globally – it is the first study of its kind that aimed to determine the economic impact by means of applying more than one assessment model to the data set of a single event. Further, this study provides guidelines for event organisers, academics and economic advisors to follow in conjunction with the existing body of knowledge and practical implementation structures when assessing the economic impact of events. / Thesis (PhD (Tourism Management))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012

Festivals have become a global phenomenon and now serve as a platform to promote the leisure and tourism industry within a nation. These events have an undisputed economic effect – not only on the hosting community – but also on the global community. Despite the encouraging community support and the socio-economic impact and spin-offs that are generated by means of such events, the financing of art festivals remains an intricate issue. The fact remains that not all festivals are financially self-sustainable and so require extensive sponsorship in order to ensure the continuation of the event. Limited government funding available due to budget constraints curbs the financial support forthcoming from municipalities and so forces event organisers to seek alternative funding to ensure the survival and feasibility of events. This responsibility places an additional burden on event organisers and so necessitates the use of assessment tools in order to convince private and public institutions or individuals to invest in such events through sponsorships. During an extensive literature study, it became apparent that the need exists to re-assess fully the economic impact analysis of events. The literature revealed that varying models are used to conduct economic impact analyses. In order to establish a concise framework within which to conduct an economic assessment, it was decided to select only the most-used models – Computable General Equilibrium (CGE), Input-Output (I-O) and Social Accounting Matrix (SAM). The dilemma facing tourism economists is to determine which economic assessment approach is most effective as every methodology has its own advantages and disadvantages. In addition, the type and size of an event also plays a fundamental role when selecting an appropriate measuring tool. This research was further motivated because of the existing gap that exists in the South African context for no study has yet been conducted where the various models that assess economic impact have been applied to the collated data of the same event. This study thus aims to provide an overview and a comparison of competing and supplementing methodologies for modelling the regional economic dynamics and the impacts of events. It further investigates the manner in which regional CGE, I-O and SAM based (multiplier) models operate towards capturing the region-specific, inter-regional and multi-regional production, consumption and factor market patterns as result of expenditures incurred during events. An analysis of the virtues and the limitations of these economic assessment methodologies suggests that it may be the considerations such as the data collection/compilation, expected output, research objectives and costs involved that ultimately determine the choice of a specific modelling framework. While addressing the problem stated above, this study produced the following three articles that are now embodied in the work: * Article 1 - “Critical assessment of economic impact analyses of the ABSA Klein Karoo National Arts Festival”, and * Article 2 - “Critical assessment of economic impact analyses of the Aardklop National Arts Festival”. Article 2 investigated and compared the economic assessment results when applying specific constructed models, being the Social Accounting Matrix (SAM) and Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) for the appropriate provinces, to the available data obtained from previous surveys conducted at the 2010 ABSA Klein Karoo National Arts Festival and from the Aardklop National Arts Festival. The two articles indicated that when different models of assessment are applied to the same data set of an event, the economic impact results might differ significantly. This may serve as a warning to economic assessors, academics and researchers that economic impact results can be misleading and therefore the application thereof should be handled with the utmost care in order to avoid misinterpretations and misconceptions. * Article 3, “Assessing the economic impact of the Aardklop National Arts Festival: a feast of models to opt for – or not?” In this article, data from a visitor and business survey conducted at the 2010 Aardklop National Arts Festival was used in the analyses made by applying SAM, CGE and I-O regional models constructed for South Africa’s Northwest Province. Results from these analyses were then compared in order to give researchers and practitioners a better insight and clarity regarding which approach works best for the economic assessment of an arts festival. This article highlighted the fact that the measured economic impact results differ when various models that are applied to the same event. It also became evident that the most conservative economic impact was measured by an I-O model, followed with a higher SAM measurement, while CGE revealed the highest economic assessment. The most significant contribution of this study is embedded in the fact that within the South African context – and even globally – it is the first study of its kind that aimed to determine the economic impact by means of applying more than one assessment model to the data set of a single event. Further, this study provides guidelines for event organisers, academics and economic advisors to follow in conjunction with the existing body of knowledge and practical implementation structures when assessing the economic impact of events. / Thesis (PhD (Tourism Management))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012

The Klein Karoo National Arts Festival (KKNK) and the Aardklop National Arts Festival (Aardklop) are two of the largest and most popular arts festivals in South Africa. From a sustainability point of view, the primary aim of these festivals is to increase show ticket sales. However, show ticket sales have declined in recent years which, if this trend continues, will result in the discontinuation of these festivals. Market segmentation can assist the festivals' marketers/organisers to address this problem by identifying markets that buy show tickets, thereby supporting the festivals' shows/productions. With the latter in mind, the main purpose of this study was to critically evaluate different segmentation variables and approaches available to segment visitors who buy show tickets. Market segmentation is the process of dividing the festival market into smaller, more clearly defined groups that share similar needs, wants and characteristics. The more detailed the knowledge of the needs and motives of potential visitors, the closer the festivals can get to a customised festival programme creating greater satisfaction, long-term relationships, repeat visits and an increase in tickets supporting the shows/productions. Various variables/bases are used to segment a market to understand visitors' needs, motives and expectations. These variables/bases of segmentation include demographics;--expenditure, psychographies, decision behaviour, geographic, product specific, interests, travel motivations and communication channels. These variables give a complete visitors profile and are used to identify and compare different segments. Although these variables have been recommended as viable segmentation bases, there seems to be no single ideal base or variable that is the most effective segmentation criterion, since each variable serves a specific purpose. Therefore, the most appropriate variable or variables can only be selected if the objectives of the segmentation strategy are clearly defined. With the aim of the festivals in mind, it is therefore imperative to evaluate these segmentation variables and approaches critically to determine the most suitable variables to segment the festival market. To achieve the latter as well as the goal of this study, the study is divided into five articles. Research for all the articles was undertaken at the festivals and data obtained from 2008 were used for Aardklop, while data gathered in 2009 were used for the KKNK. Questionnaires were interview-administered and distributed randomly during the course of the festivals. In total, 495 questionnaires were completed in the visitor survey for Aardklop and 555 questionnaires for the KKNK. The variables travel motives, expenditure, visitor behaviour in terms of genre attendance and frequency of visitation were applied separately as well as in combination to address the goal of this study. Along with these variables, combination of statistical analysis or approaches including factor analysis, cluster analysis, regression analysis, AN OVA, as weI! as independent t-tests were applied to segment the festivals' markets. The best results were obtained when the variables and statistical analyses were used in combination rather than alone and provided valuable insights into the profile of the festivals' visitors. The contribution of this research therefore lies in the following: • Visitors at two similar Afrikaans festivals were, for the first time, analysed and compared using various methods of segmentation. • The methods used to segment the visitors were applied for the first time not only in this study, but also in the South African festival context. The following methods were applied for the first time in this study and can therefore be seen as a benchmark in South African festival research: Travel motives as a method of market segmentation; Distinguishing between genre attendees and non-genre attendees; Frequency of visitation and Segmenting and clustering festival visitors based on the genres attended. • The methods used in this study therefore add value to the tourism and festival industry and contribute to the body of knowledge about South African arts festival visitors and especially about the optimum approach to segment the festival market. • A combination of variables should be used to comprehensively segment the festival market with the aim of increasing show ticket sales.. • In addition, from a methodology point of view, this study has contributed to the following: Questionnaire design and development, selection of the sampling frame and size, as well as the type of statistical analysis used (separately and in combination). This study therefore greatly assists not only festival marketers/organisers but also future researchers. The information obtained from this study can be applied to comprehensively segment and profile the festival market and customise the festival programme based on visitor’s needs. This should lead to an increase in ticket sales, a greater economic impact and, ultimately, to the continuous sustainability of arts festivals in South Africa. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Tourism))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2010.

The Klein Karoo National Arts Festival (KKNK) and the Aardklop National Arts Festival (Aardklop) are two of the largest and most popular arts festivals in South Africa. From a sustainability point of view, the primary aim of these festivals is to increase show ticket sales. However, show ticket sales have declined in recent years which, if this trend continues, will result in the discontinuation of these festivals. Market segmentation can assist the festivals' marketers/organisers to address this problem by identifying markets that buy show tickets, thereby supporting the festivals' shows/productions. With the latter in mind, the main purpose of this study was to critically evaluate different segmentation variables and approaches available to segment visitors who buy show tickets. Market segmentation is the process of dividing the festival market into smaller, more clearly defined groups that share similar needs, wants and characteristics. The more detailed the knowledge of the needs and motives of potential visitors, the closer the festivals can get to a customised festival programme creating greater satisfaction, long-term relationships, repeat visits and an increase in tickets supporting the shows/productions. Various variables/bases are used to segment a market to understand visitors' needs, motives and expectations. These variables/bases of segmentation include demographics;--expenditure, psychographies, decision behaviour, geographic, product specific, interests, travel motivations and communication channels. These variables give a complete visitors profile and are used to identify and compare different segments. Although these variables have been recommended as viable segmentation bases, there seems to be no single ideal base or variable that is the most effective segmentation criterion, since each variable serves a specific purpose. Therefore, the most appropriate variable or variables can only be selected if the objectives of the segmentation strategy are clearly defined. With the aim of the festivals in mind, it is therefore imperative to evaluate these segmentation variables and approaches critically to determine the most suitable variables to segment the festival market. To achieve the latter as well as the goal of this study, the study is divided into five articles. Research for all the articles was undertaken at the festivals and data obtained from 2008 were used for Aardklop, while data gathered in 2009 were used for the KKNK. Questionnaires were interview-administered and distributed randomly during the course of the festivals. In total, 495 questionnaires were completed in the visitor survey for Aardklop and 555 questionnaires for the KKNK. The variables travel motives, expenditure, visitor behaviour in terms of genre attendance and frequency of visitation were applied separately as well as in combination to address the goal of this study. Along with these variables, combination of statistical analysis or approaches including factor analysis, cluster analysis, regression analysis, AN OVA, as weI! as independent t-tests were applied to segment the festivals' markets. The best results were obtained when the variables and statistical analyses were used in combination rather than alone and provided valuable insights into the profile of the festivals' visitors. The contribution of this research therefore lies in the following: • Visitors at two similar Afrikaans festivals were, for the first time, analysed and compared using various methods of segmentation. • The methods used to segment the visitors were applied for the first time not only in this study, but also in the South African festival context. The following methods were applied for the first time in this study and can therefore be seen as a benchmark in South African festival research: Travel motives as a method of market segmentation; Distinguishing between genre attendees and non-genre attendees; Frequency of visitation and Segmenting and clustering festival visitors based on the genres attended. • The methods used in this study therefore add value to the tourism and festival industry and contribute to the body of knowledge about South African arts festival visitors and especially about the optimum approach to segment the festival market. • A combination of variables should be used to comprehensively segment the festival market with the aim of increasing show ticket sales.. • In addition, from a methodology point of view, this study has contributed to the following: Questionnaire design and development, selection of the sampling frame and size, as well as the type of statistical analysis used (separately and in combination). This study therefore greatly assists not only festival marketers/organisers but also future researchers. The information obtained from this study can be applied to comprehensively segment and profile the festival market and customise the festival programme based on visitor’s needs. This should lead to an increase in ticket sales, a greater economic impact and, ultimately, to the continuous sustainability of arts festivals in South Africa. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Tourism))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2010.

The Grahamstown Festival has become a huge and complex annual celebration of the arts, transforming the small Eastern Cape city for ten days every year. However this event had very modest beginnings, as did music and festivals in the city of Grahamstown. From its early days Grahamstown showed strong signs of becoming an important cultural centre, presenting numerous musical concerts from 1812, the festival tradition in the city beginning in 1887. The modern arts festival, initiated in 1971, had a chequered history during the early and mid 1970's, weathering economic recession, petrol restrictions and a repressive and restrictive political atmosphere. However by 1979 the event had become established and popular enough to ensure continued success during the 1980's. The period 1980-89 was one of great growth and development for the festival regarding attendance, and the number and nature of productions presented. Music had always been an integral part of the festival, and for the first time its role in this artistic celebration is being examined. The impact of such an event is varied and far-reaching, and thus difficult to assess, but the thesis ends with an attempt to gauge the Festival's impact.

The accurate measurement of the value of the arts to society is becoming increasingly important in developing countries, like South Africa, where the arts must compete with housing, health, education and the like for public funds. Motivation for the public funding of arts events, like the Standard Bank National Arts Festival in Grahamstown, is usually based on the economic impact, that is, the financial benefits to the region, of such events. The argument is problematic, however, because the primary recipients of such economic benefits are often middle to upper income groups who also attend more arts performances. Furthermore, the studies have not taken into account the positive externalities which, it is argued, are generated by the arts and are enjoyed by attenders and non attenders alike. This thesis argues that it is the social benefits which the arts provide, those external to the market, which should be the basis of public funding. In order to quantify these positive externalities, a willingness to pay (WTP) study was conducted in the Grahamstown region. It is generally, but erroneously, believed that the Festival does not benefit the poorer, largely black, Grahamstown East residents. The study found that, in addition to the economic value (R23 - 25 million a year), the non-market benefits which the festival provides are worth between R2.3 and R3 million a year and form a very important part of its value, particularly to low income groups. The study also found that there are methodological adjustments which can be made to WTP studies to successfully control for the many forms of bias it is prone to. By using a combination of closed and open ended and liable and non-liable questions, the motivation of respondents' answers to WTP questions was determined, making it possible to adjust for bias caused by, for example, "free rider" and "warm glow" responses. It is argued that by identifying and excluding such responses from WTP surveys, it is possible to reduce bias to an acceptable level.

The primary goal of the study was to standardise and validate a scale to measure the arts’ contribution of arts festivals. To achieve this goal, four objectives were formulated. First, to study arts’ contribution of arts festivals by defining, analysing and exploring related concepts through the provision of a detailed background and discussion on the topic by means of a literature review. Second, to study and select applicable explanatory theory that can be used to develop a standardised scale that measures the arts’ contribution of arts festivals by means of a second literature review. Third to determine the validity and reliability of the scale measuring the arts festival’s contribution to the performing arts and to the visual arts through an exploratory factor analysis and a confirmatory factor analysis. Lastly, to draw conclusions based on the research and make recommendations with regard to the standardisation and validation of the scale to measure the arts’ contribution of arts festivals. The first objective was achieved by conducting a literature study. The literature study on arts festivals and their contribution to the arts was explored by defining the term festival tourism; discussing aspects related to a festival (by defining a festival, explaining the festival’s relationship with culture and events, identifying the characteristics, types, benefits and potential problems associated with a festival, and identifying visitor motives for attending a festival); discussing aspects related to the term arts festival (by providing an overview of arts tourism, defining an arts festival, listing reasons for the establishment of an arts festival and discussing the arts present at arts festivals – through defining and classifying the arts); and identifying the contributions of an arts festival to the arts (by listing the types of contribution – educational, emotional, economic, quality, marketing, and growth and development – , discussing the purpose of contributing to the arts, listing perceptual differences of festival visitors regarding the contributions of an arts festival to the arts and discussing limitations of an arts festival to contribute to the arts). Achieving the second objective, the second literature study discussed the term survey (by defining a survey, identifying the types, characteristics, advantages, disadvantages and merits of a survey and discussing the survey process); discussed the term standardisation (by defining standardisation and stating the purpose for the standardisation of a measurement scale); discussed the standardisation process (by outlining the different stages in the standardisation process – the planning phase, where the aim of the measure is specified, the content is defined and the test plan is developed; the item writing phase, includes the writing and review of items; assembling and pre-testing the experimental version of the measure, which includes the arrangements of the items, finalisation of the length, protocols for answering, development of administration instructions and pre-test of the experimental version of the measure; the item and data analysis phase consists of the determination of discriminating power, preliminary investigation into item bias and the establishment of validity and reliability; and revising the final version of the measure, which encompasses the revision of the items and test, the selection of items for the final version of the test, the refinement of administration instructions and score procedures and the administration of the final version of the test); and identified and discussed ethical considerations, foreseen problems, limitations and recommendations associated with conducting a survey and the standardisation of a measurement scale. The third objective was to determine the validity and reliability of the measurement scale. This objective was achieved by discussing the implementation phase of the measurement scale where attention was given to the survey design and sampling. A stratified random sampling method was used at three selected arts festivals in South Africa, the KKNK, Innibos and Vryfees, where a descriptive survey design was administered in the form of a measurement scale, such as a questionnaire. Research assistants were trained and the scale was administered in a consistent fashion which supports internal reliability. The same survey procedures were undertaken at all three arts festivals, supporting face validity and internal validity. Representative samples were collected at the three arts festivals, also supporting external validity. Attention was also given to the measurement scale design (where respondents could give their perceptions concerning the contributions made by the arts festival to the arts through the completion of the questionnaire – which was based on literature and contained the relevant information to collect problem specific information, supporting content validity and construct validity. The scale had also undergone the delphi-technique for expert advice, supporting face validity. Providing a summary of the data analysis procedure contributed to the achievement of this objective. The data collected from the measurement scale have been captured in Microsoft™ Excel™ and analysed using the statistical software program, SPSS. The data of the arts festivals contributing to the performing arts were analysed separately from the data of the festivals where they contribute to the visual arts. This was done to get a detailed data analysis for the standardisation of the measurement scale. The split of the data also contributed to the measurement scale being divided in two separate standardised scales in determining the arts festival’s contribution to a specific form of the arts; both the data of the performing arts and the data of the visual arts had undergone the same statistical procedure for data analysis in determining the validity and reliability thereof. The results indicated that the measurement scale is a valid and reliable measure in determining the arts festival’s contribution to both the arts forms. To determine the validity of the measurement scale pertaining to the performing arts and to the visual arts, an exploratory principal axis factor analysis with Oblimin rotation was conducted on the combined data of Innibos and Vryfees (n = 982). Bartlett's Test of Sphericity was p < 0.001 and the Kaiser-Meyer- Olkin test of sample adequacy rendered a value between 0 and 1, indicating that the sample sizes were adequate to conduct an exploratory factor analysis on the data of the performing arts (KMO = 0.958) and on the data of the visual arts (KMO = 0.972); all items of the performing arts (22 items) and of the visual arts (22 items) loaded on a factor with loadings greater than 0.2. The factor analysis on the performing arts data extracted five factors. Factor 1 (Quality and Education Contribution) was defined by 5 items with a Cronbach’s α-value of 0.867 and an interitem correlation mean of 0.568. Factor 2 (Growth and Development Contribution) was defined by 6 items (Cronbach’s α = 0.896; inter-item correlation = 0.594). Factor 3 (Emotional Contribution) was defined by 3 items (Cronbach’s α = 0.706; inter-item correlation = 0.440). Factor 4 (Economic Contribution) was defined by 4 items (Cronbach’s α = 0.824; inter-item correlation = 0.540). Factor 5 (Marketing Contribution) was defined by 4 items (Cronbach’s α = 0.866; inter-item correlation = 0.617). The factor analysis on the visual arts data extracted four factors. Factor 1 (Education and Growth and Development Contribution) was defined by 8 items (Cronbach’s α = 0.947; inter-item correlation = 0.690). Factor 2 (Economic and Quality Contribution) was defined by 7 items (Cronbach’s α = 0.920; inter-item correlation = 0.622). Factor 3 (Emotional Contribution) was defined by 3 items (Cronbach’s α = 0.828; inter-item correlation = 0.616). Factor 4 (Marketing Contribution) was defined by 4 items (Cronbach’s α = 0.905; inter-item correlation of 0.704). There were correlations between factors of the performing arts and between the factors of the visual arts, where all correlations were 0.3 and larger, supporting construct validity. Further validity of the measurement scale was determined by a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) on the performing arts data and on the visual arts data of KKNK (n = 602), where the path diagram confirmed the factor structures of both the performing arts and visual arts exploratory factor analyses, supporting criterion validity. CFA goodness-of-fit indexes were also used to determine whether the models fit with the data. The performing arts model and the visual arts model were found to have an adequate to good fit with the data of KKNK. The chi-square test of Independence (X2) for the performing arts rendered a value of p < 0.001 and for the visual arts was p < 0.001. The chi-square divided by the degrees of freedom (X2 / df) for the performing arts was 4.284 and for the visual arts was 4.9, the Comparative Fit Index (CFI) for the performing arts was 0.914 and for the visual arts was 0.931, and the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) for the performing arts was 0.074 and for the visual arts was 0.079. To determine the reliability of the measurement scale, the Cronbach’s Alpha values and inter-item correlations between the factors were determined. All the factors of the performing arts rendered a high Cronbach’s Alpha value (greater than 0.7) and for the visual arts a value of 0.8. All the factors of the performing arts rendered a high interitem correlation value (greater than 0.4) and for the visual arts a value greater than 0.6. The final objective, to draw conclusions and make recommendations based on the results of the study, indicated that this study made a significant contribution to the literature and methodology of standardising a measurement scale and to the planning of arts festivals as it would lead to the development of arts festivals contributing to the arts more effectively and more efficiently. Future research on this topic should be conducted at other arts festivals, including Englishlanguage arts festivals, to enable comparative studies to be made and supporting the test-retest reliability theory on the standardised measurement scale. It is also recommended that the study should measure contribution to the arts by other arts-related organisations, for example, at museums, theatres, and galleries, by administering the standardised scale to measure the contribution they make to their specific arts form. It is important to standardise a measurement scale for arts contribution to better understand the contributing factors of the arts festival to the arts which will assist festival managers in implementing strategies that ensure the livelihood and ongoing contribution of arts festivals to the arts. / PhD (Tourism Management), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

The primary goal of the study was to standardise and validate a scale to measure the arts’ contribution of arts festivals. To achieve this goal, four objectives were formulated. First, to study arts’ contribution of arts festivals by defining, analysing and exploring related concepts through the provision of a detailed background and discussion on the topic by means of a literature review. Second, to study and select applicable explanatory theory that can be used to develop a standardised scale that measures the arts’ contribution of arts festivals by means of a second literature review. Third to determine the validity and reliability of the scale measuring the arts festival’s contribution to the performing arts and to the visual arts through an exploratory factor analysis and a confirmatory factor analysis. Lastly, to draw conclusions based on the research and make recommendations with regard to the standardisation and validation of the scale to measure the arts’ contribution of arts festivals. The first objective was achieved by conducting a literature study. The literature study on arts festivals and their contribution to the arts was explored by defining the term festival tourism; discussing aspects related to a festival (by defining a festival, explaining the festival’s relationship with culture and events, identifying the characteristics, types, benefits and potential problems associated with a festival, and identifying visitor motives for attending a festival); discussing aspects related to the term arts festival (by providing an overview of arts tourism, defining an arts festival, listing reasons for the establishment of an arts festival and discussing the arts present at arts festivals – through defining and classifying the arts); and identifying the contributions of an arts festival to the arts (by listing the types of contribution – educational, emotional, economic, quality, marketing, and growth and development – , discussing the purpose of contributing to the arts, listing perceptual differences of festival visitors regarding the contributions of an arts festival to the arts and discussing limitations of an arts festival to contribute to the arts). Achieving the second objective, the second literature study discussed the term survey (by defining a survey, identifying the types, characteristics, advantages, disadvantages and merits of a survey and discussing the survey process); discussed the term standardisation (by defining standardisation and stating the purpose for the standardisation of a measurement scale); discussed the standardisation process (by outlining the different stages in the standardisation process – the planning phase, where the aim of the measure is specified, the content is defined and the test plan is developed; the item writing phase, includes the writing and review of items; assembling and pre-testing the experimental version of the measure, which includes the arrangements of the items, finalisation of the length, protocols for answering, development of administration instructions and pre-test of the experimental version of the measure; the item and data analysis phase consists of the determination of discriminating power, preliminary investigation into item bias and the establishment of validity and reliability; and revising the final version of the measure, which encompasses the revision of the items and test, the selection of items for the final version of the test, the refinement of administration instructions and score procedures and the administration of the final version of the test); and identified and discussed ethical considerations, foreseen problems, limitations and recommendations associated with conducting a survey and the standardisation of a measurement scale. The third objective was to determine the validity and reliability of the measurement scale. This objective was achieved by discussing the implementation phase of the measurement scale where attention was given to the survey design and sampling. A stratified random sampling method was used at three selected arts festivals in South Africa, the KKNK, Innibos and Vryfees, where a descriptive survey design was administered in the form of a measurement scale, such as a questionnaire. Research assistants were trained and the scale was administered in a consistent fashion which supports internal reliability. The same survey procedures were undertaken at all three arts festivals, supporting face validity and internal validity. Representative samples were collected at the three arts festivals, also supporting external validity. Attention was also given to the measurement scale design (where respondents could give their perceptions concerning the contributions made by the arts festival to the arts through the completion of the questionnaire – which was based on literature and contained the relevant information to collect problem specific information, supporting content validity and construct validity. The scale had also undergone the delphi-technique for expert advice, supporting face validity. Providing a summary of the data analysis procedure contributed to the achievement of this objective. The data collected from the measurement scale have been captured in Microsoft™ Excel™ and analysed using the statistical software program, SPSS. The data of the arts festivals contributing to the performing arts were analysed separately from the data of the festivals where they contribute to the visual arts. This was done to get a detailed data analysis for the standardisation of the measurement scale. The split of the data also contributed to the measurement scale being divided in two separate standardised scales in determining the arts festival’s contribution to a specific form of the arts; both the data of the performing arts and the data of the visual arts had undergone the same statistical procedure for data analysis in determining the validity and reliability thereof. The results indicated that the measurement scale is a valid and reliable measure in determining the arts festival’s contribution to both the arts forms. To determine the validity of the measurement scale pertaining to the performing arts and to the visual arts, an exploratory principal axis factor analysis with Oblimin rotation was conducted on the combined data of Innibos and Vryfees (n = 982). Bartlett's Test of Sphericity was p < 0.001 and the Kaiser-Meyer- Olkin test of sample adequacy rendered a value between 0 and 1, indicating that the sample sizes were adequate to conduct an exploratory factor analysis on the data of the performing arts (KMO = 0.958) and on the data of the visual arts (KMO = 0.972); all items of the performing arts (22 items) and of the visual arts (22 items) loaded on a factor with loadings greater than 0.2. The factor analysis on the performing arts data extracted five factors. Factor 1 (Quality and Education Contribution) was defined by 5 items with a Cronbach’s α-value of 0.867 and an interitem correlation mean of 0.568. Factor 2 (Growth and Development Contribution) was defined by 6 items (Cronbach’s α = 0.896; inter-item correlation = 0.594). Factor 3 (Emotional Contribution) was defined by 3 items (Cronbach’s α = 0.706; inter-item correlation = 0.440). Factor 4 (Economic Contribution) was defined by 4 items (Cronbach’s α = 0.824; inter-item correlation = 0.540). Factor 5 (Marketing Contribution) was defined by 4 items (Cronbach’s α = 0.866; inter-item correlation = 0.617). The factor analysis on the visual arts data extracted four factors. Factor 1 (Education and Growth and Development Contribution) was defined by 8 items (Cronbach’s α = 0.947; inter-item correlation = 0.690). Factor 2 (Economic and Quality Contribution) was defined by 7 items (Cronbach’s α = 0.920; inter-item correlation = 0.622). Factor 3 (Emotional Contribution) was defined by 3 items (Cronbach’s α = 0.828; inter-item correlation = 0.616). Factor 4 (Marketing Contribution) was defined by 4 items (Cronbach’s α = 0.905; inter-item correlation of 0.704). There were correlations between factors of the performing arts and between the factors of the visual arts, where all correlations were 0.3 and larger, supporting construct validity. Further validity of the measurement scale was determined by a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) on the performing arts data and on the visual arts data of KKNK (n = 602), where the path diagram confirmed the factor structures of both the performing arts and visual arts exploratory factor analyses, supporting criterion validity. CFA goodness-of-fit indexes were also used to determine whether the models fit with the data. The performing arts model and the visual arts model were found to have an adequate to good fit with the data of KKNK. The chi-square test of Independence (X2) for the performing arts rendered a value of p < 0.001 and for the visual arts was p < 0.001. The chi-square divided by the degrees of freedom (X2 / df) for the performing arts was 4.284 and for the visual arts was 4.9, the Comparative Fit Index (CFI) for the performing arts was 0.914 and for the visual arts was 0.931, and the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) for the performing arts was 0.074 and for the visual arts was 0.079. To determine the reliability of the measurement scale, the Cronbach’s Alpha values and inter-item correlations between the factors were determined. All the factors of the performing arts rendered a high Cronbach’s Alpha value (greater than 0.7) and for the visual arts a value of 0.8. All the factors of the performing arts rendered a high interitem correlation value (greater than 0.4) and for the visual arts a value greater than 0.6. The final objective, to draw conclusions and make recommendations based on the results of the study, indicated that this study made a significant contribution to the literature and methodology of standardising a measurement scale and to the planning of arts festivals as it would lead to the development of arts festivals contributing to the arts more effectively and more efficiently. Future research on this topic should be conducted at other arts festivals, including Englishlanguage arts festivals, to enable comparative studies to be made and supporting the test-retest reliability theory on the standardised measurement scale. It is also recommended that the study should measure contribution to the arts by other arts-related organisations, for example, at museums, theatres, and galleries, by administering the standardised scale to measure the contribution they make to their specific arts form. It is important to standardise a measurement scale for arts contribution to better understand the contributing factors of the arts festival to the arts which will assist festival managers in implementing strategies that ensure the livelihood and ongoing contribution of arts festivals to the arts. / PhD (Tourism Management), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015