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Neuroscience research has been largely focused on neurons, while an equally important cell type, glia, was sidelined until recently. Astrocytes are star-shaped glial cells responsible for a variety of homeostatic processes of the central nervous system in addition to participating in synaptogenesis and neuronal signal transmission. A variety of immunohistochemical markers have been utilized to visualize these cells in the brain including glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), vimentin, and aldehyde dehydrogenase 1 family member L1 (ALDH1L1). The current study makes use of a multiplex immunohistochemistry protocol developed in collaboration with General Electric to stain rhesus monkey brain tissue samples from the lateral prefrontal cortex (LPFC; n=5) and the primary visual cortex (V1; n=4) with a large number of markers, including GFAP, vimentin, and ALDH1L1 as well as neuronal, microglial, and oxidative stress markers. Using algorithms and manual cell classification, we were able to obtain neuronal and astrocytic counts and use these to estimate astrocyte-to-neuron ratios (ANRs) of the individual brain areas and laminae as well as assess the relative intensity of the markers of interest between areas. Among our findings there was higher ANRs in LPFC compared to V1 gray matter as well as in layer 1 compared to layer 2 in both areas studied. There is also a higher density of astrocytes in layer 1 potentially due to the recognized lack of neurons in this layer. We found significantly higher intensities of GFAP across all gray matter layers in V1 compared to LPFC as well as higher intensities for TSPO and Cleaved Caspase-3 in some V1 layers compared to their LPFC counterparts. This higher intensity of V1 reactive astrocyte markers are potentially due to the increased number of neurons these astrocytes need to support as demonstrated by the low ANR seen in V1 when compared to LPFC. In order to further our knowledge of normal astrocyte properties in these brain areas, it is imperative that we confirm our counts with stereologic studies and include oligodendrocyte markers in our multiplex staining protocol in order to better assess glial numbers within our sections. Additionally, morphological studies assessing rhesus monkey astrocytes identified with a variety of markers is important as we have shown that no one marker stains all astrocytes even though most astrocytes express more than one marker at a time.

Every year millions of individuals suffer from traumatic brain injury (TBI) leading to permanent disabilities and even death. Mild TBI (mTBI) is the most common form of TBI comprising about 80-90% of all occurrences. Following a CNS insult like an mTBI, astrocytes can undergo activation resulting in the transformation into reactive astrocytes (RAs). RAs also play an important role in brain remodeling following an mTBI. Research on the mechanical complexity of the brain has important implications for understanding brain function and dysfunction, as well as for the development of new diagnostic and therapeutic tools for neurological disorders. This study aimed to develop and utilize an emph{in vitro} mTBI platform to investigate the intricate mechanical interplay between the extracellular matrix (ECM) and astrocytes following a simulated mTBI. Cellular mechanisms underlying mTBI and the contribution of mechanical forces that result in prolonged brain damage are yet to be comprehensively understood. Successfully devised mechanical characterization techniques for tissue-engineered models were developed utilizing atomic force microscopy and rheology. Astrocyte exposure to high-rate overpressure revealed altered mechanical properties of the surrounding matrix and decreased expression of laminin and collagen IV, which are critical for brain function and may contribute to pathologies associated with mTBI. The developed platform and methods provide new insights into the mechanistic complexity underlying ECM-astrocyte interactions following an mTBI. / Master of Science / Every year, millions of people suffer from traumatic brain injury (TBI), which can lead to permanent disabilities or even death. The most common form of TBI is mild TBI (mTBI), which accounts for 80-90% of all cases. After a mTBI, astrocytes, the most common cell type in the brain, can become activated and turn into reactive astrocytes (RAs). RAs play an important role in the brain's recovery following a mTBI. Understanding the mechanical complexity of the brain is crucial for developing new diagnostic and therapeutic tools for neurological disorders. This study aimed to investigate the mechanical interplay between the modeled tissue and astrocytes following a simulated mTBI using an emph{in vitro} platform. Development of mechanical characterization techniques allowed for any alterations caused by the astrocytes to their environment to be detectable. The astrocyte exposure to the simulated mTBI revealed altered mechanical properties of the surrounding environment and decreased expression of proteins laminin and collagen IV, which are critical to brain function and may contribute to pathologies associated with mTBI. This study provides new insights into the mechanistic complexity underlying the interaction between astrocytes and their environment, which could lead to the development of new treatments.

Patients with Alzheimer’s disease (AD) experience sleep disturbances, including disruption in slow-wave sleep (SWS). Slow oscillations (≤1 Hz), a brain rhythm prevalent during SWS, play a role in memory consolidation. Interestingly, patients with AD exhibit slow oscillations of low amplitude, which might contribute to their memory impairments. The mechanisms underlying slow-wave disruptions in AD remain unknown. Slow oscillations originate in the neocortex. Cortical neurons from all layers oscillate between UP and DOWN states during slow oscillations. Astrocytes are known to support neuronal circuit functions, and disruptions in astrocyte activity might contribute to slow-wave aberrations. Here, we investigated astrocytic contributions to slow-wave disruptions in an animal model of beta-amyloidosis (APP mice). First, we monitored astrocytic calcium transients to determine whether astrocytic calcium dynamics were disrupted in APP mice. Fourier transform analysis revealed that the power, but not the frequency of astrocytic calcium transients, was disrupted in young APP mice. This suggested calcium dynamic of astrocytic network was altered and might contribute to the disruption of slow waves in APP mice. Second, we used optogenetics to synchronize cortical astrocyte activity at 0.6 Hz to drive slow oscillations in APP mice. Our results showed that optogenetic activation of ChR2-expressing astrocytes at the endogenous frequency of slow waves restored slow-wave power. Furthermore, chronic optogenetic stimulation of astrocytes at 0.6Hz for 14 or 28 days reduced amyloid plaque deposition, prevented calcium overload in neurites, and improved memory performance in APP mice. These results revealed a malfunction of the astrocytic network driving slow-wave disruptions, and suggested a novel target to restore slow-wave power in APP mice, with translational potential to treat AD.

The regulation of neural precursor cells (NPCs), which encompass neural progenitor and neural stem cells (NSCs), is fundamental for proper brain development and function. These cells are regulated by orchestrated signalling within their local environment. Aberrant aspects of cell proliferation, differentiation, survival, or integration have been linked to various neurological diseases including Fragile X syndrome (FXS)—a disorder characterized by intellectual and social changes due to the silencing of the gene encoding FMRP. The biology of hippocampal NPCs in FXS during early postnatal development has not been studied, despite high FMRP expression levels in the hippocampus at the end of the first postnatal week. In this thesis, the Fmr1-knockout (KO) mouse model was used to study hippocampal cell biology during early postnatal development. A tissue culture assay, used to study the effect of astrocyte-secreted factors on the proliferation of NSCs, indicated that astrocyte secreted factors from Fmr1-KO brains enhanced the proliferation of wild type, but not Fmr1-KO NSCs (Chapter 3). Next, the proliferation and cell cycle profiles of NPCs in vitro and in vivo studied with immunocytochemistry, Western blotting, and flow cytometry revealed decreased proliferation of NPCs in the Fmr1-KO hippocampus (Chapter 4). Finally, cells isolated from the P7 dentate gyrus and characterized by flow cytometry, showed a reduced proportion of NSCs and an increased proportion of neuroblasts—neuronal committed progenitors—in Fmr1-KO mice. Together, these results indicate that hippocampal NPCs show aberrant proliferation and neurogenesis during early postnatal development. This could indicate stem-cell depletion, increased quiescence, or a developmental delay in relation to lack of FMRP and uncovers a new role for FMRP in the early postnatal hippocampus. In turn, elucidating the mechanisms that underlie FXS will aid in the development of targeted treatments. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / Fragile X syndrome is the leading inherited cause of intellectual impairment and autism spectrum disorder. The syndrome is caused by a defect in one gene. This gene has been suggested to play a role in regulating the birth of new brain cells termed neural precursor cells. The importance of neural precursor cells stems from their ability to generate neurons and glia, the main cells in the brain. In this thesis, I focus on studying neural precursor cells from the hippocampus, a brain region important for learning and memory. A mouse model was used to compare neural precursor cells from healthy and Fragile X mice during early postnatal development. I found that neural precursor cells do not divide as much as they should in the Fragile X mouse hippocampus. The results help to determine the causes for learning and memory deficits in Fragile X and potentially open avenues for intervention.

Les cellules gliales, notamment les astrocytes, interviennent dans l'homéostasie potassique en limitant entre autres les excès de potassium dans le milieu extracellulaire. C'est le tamponnage potassique glial. Les canaux gliaux Kir4.1, principaux responsables de la haute conductance potassique de ces cellules au potentiel de repos, semblent être les candidats idéaux pour assurer un rôle important dans le tamponnage potassique. Cependant, leur contribution effective et l'importance de cette participation dans la recapture de potassium sont encore peu claires. Notre étude s'est appuyée sur le modèle de la souris transgénique knock-out pour le gène Kir4.1 dans les cellules gliales GFAP+ (cKG: knock-out conditionnel). Le but principal était d'étudier l'impact de cette déplétion génétique sur la recapture du potassium extracellulaire. Les expériences ont été faites in vivo dans l'hippocampe de souris juvéniles, maintenues sous anesthésie (kétamine-xylasine). Nous avons utilisé des pipettes sensibles au potassium pour enregistrer les variations de concentration de potassium extracellulaire ([K+]extra), simultanément avec des enregistrements de potentiels de champ DC. Nous avons évalué les différences de dynamisme du [K+]extra suite à des stimulations (chapitre 1) ou lors de l'activité spontanée hippocampique, caractérisée par de lents épisodes périodiques d'activité, occasionnant de conséquentes augmentations de [K+]extra (~ 0.5 mM) (chapitre 2). En parallèle, nous avons aussi effectué des enregistrements intracellulaires gliaux (chapitre 1) pour évaluer l'effet de la déplétion sur leurs propriétés membranaires. Nous avons mis en évidence que les souris cKG Kir4.1: 1) présentaient des glies dépolarisées de près de 20 m V, avec une perméabilité potassique altérée; 2) présentaient un retour plus lent du [K+]extra suite des stimulations induisant un excès modéré de [K+]extra <2mM), ou suite à l'activité spontanée lente hippocampique ; 3) présentait une activité spontanée moins intense, associée à un dynamisme de [K+]extra plus lent. Nous montrons donc dans cette étude que les canaux Kir4.1 gliaux confèrent une importante conductance potassique aux cellules gliales, et par conséquent ont un rôle essentiel dans le maintien du potentiel de membrane des cellules gliales proche du potentiel d'équilibre du potassium. De plus, nous apportons des évidences en faveur de l'implication de ces canaux dans une recapture efficace du potassium extracellulaire.

Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) is a chronic neurodegenerative disease commonly characterized by the aggregation and deposition of insoluble amyloid beta plaques throughout the brain, and by an associated neuroinflammatory response to these plaques involving astrocytes and microglia. Choline is an essential nutrient with diverse functional roles that has emerged as a promising candidate for the treatment of AD. Localized plaque regions in the polymorphic layer in the medial dentate gyrus of the hippocampus and in the cortex were examined in 9-month-old APP-NL-G-F knock-in AD model mice to determine the effects of perinatal choline supplementation on astrocytosis and gliosis associated with amyloid beta. The size of ionized calcium-binding adaptor molecule 1 (Iba1)-positive cells and clusters were larger in control diet APPNL-G-F mice, although the number and total area covered by Iba1+ cells/clusters were decreased compared to those of control diet C57BL6/J mice. In comparison, choline supplementation significantly reduced the size of Iba1+ cells/clusters in APPNL-G-F mice. These results suggest that perinatal choline supplementation ameliorates neuroinflammatory processes associated with amyloid plaques in these 9-month-old APPNL-G-F mice, and that dietary supplementation of choline might serve as an effective treatment for AD. / 2026-02-14T00:00:00Z

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