Smoking cigarettes is the most preventable cause of death in the US. Smokers are often unsuccessful at quitting because they are dependent. Reducing nicotine could be one way to reduce dependence. Currently, reducing cigarettes per day (CPD) is the most common strategy to reduce nicotine intake. However, some have proposed switching to very low nicotine content (VLNC) cigarettes to reduce nicotine and dependence. Both reducing CPD and switching to VLNC cigarettes aim to reduce nicotine but do so in different ways. I conducted a randomized trial to compare the degree to which switching to VLNC cigarettes vs reducing CPD 1) is more acceptable and 2) decreases dependence more among smokers not ready to quit. Sixty-eight adult smokers of ≥ 10 cigarettes/day who were not ready to quit smoked full nicotine study cigarettes ad-lib for 1 week (week 0). I provided all participants with nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) patches and instructions to gradually reduce over the next 4 weeks by either 1) switching to lower nicotine content VLNC cigarettes or 2) reducing the number of full nicotine CPD. I provided VLNC participants with their usual number of cigarettes throughout the study but cigarettes contained only 70% of their usual nicotine at week 1, 35% at week 2, 15% at week 3, and 3% at week 4. I provided CPD participants with full nicotine cigarettes throughout the study but only 70% of their usual number of cigarettes at week 1, 35% at week 2, 15% at week 3, and 3% at week 4. I instructed participants to attempt to smoke only study cigarettes and report use of all (study + non-study) cigarettes via nightly surveys. I used participants’ percent non-study cigarettes/day as a proxy for acceptability and the Nicotine Dependence Syndrome Scale as my primary measure of dependence. Participants completed self-report measures and provided breath and urine samples at weekly visits during the 5-week study period. I tested between-group differences, within-participant change over time, and group by time interactions using multi-level modeling. Switching to VLNC cigarettes was more acceptable than reducing CPD (F=5.0 p<.05). Acceptability declined over time for CPD participants as they were instructed to reduce more nicotine (F=42.2, p<.001) but this was not true for VLNC participants (F=29.5, p<.001). Dependence declined over time for both VLNC (F=10.5, p<001) and CPD (F=5.0, p<.01) participants but declined more over time for VLNC than CPD participants (F=3.2, p<.05). This is the first trial to directly compare switching to VLNC cigarettes vs reducing CPD. Large reductions were more acceptable and effective at decreasing dependence among participants who switched to VLNC cigarettes than those who reduced CPD when all were aided by NRT. My findings suggest that regulatory policy that promotes a gradual transition to VLNC cigarettes could be more acceptable and effective at decreasing dependence than the common strategy of reducing CPD. Furthermore, NRT-aided transitions to VLNC cigarettes could be a useful and acceptable component for clinical interventions to reduce nicotine dependence among smokers not ready to quit and thereby make it more likely for smokers to quit and succeed.

<p> Research on Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD) is minimal and is limited primarily to describing its nosology and clinical treatment practices. This qualitative, multi-case, case study identified school-based academic and emotional&ndash;behavioral interventions and factors which contribute to or hinder progress by conducting open-ended, semistructured interviews with high school students with a diagnosis of RAD and with school personnel who worked directly with them. Participants were from two neighboring school districts in a relatively large western state. Participants included five high school students with a diagnosis of RAD and four school personnel who worked directly them. One staff member had two students who participated in the study and thus interviewed specifically regarding both students. Data is reported holistically, as well as in paired student-staff responses to demonstrate the similarities and differences in the perceptions in relation to interventions and factors which contributed to or hindered student academic and emotional-behavioral progress. Five themes emerged in this study which led to specific implications for professional best practice including: 1) necessity for additional training, 2) development of support systems in the school setting, 3) providing a &ldquo;go-to&rdquo; person, 4) provide direct instruction in why and how emotional-behavioral progress will be monitored, and 5) provide direct instruction in how to build and maintain trust. As not all of these practices are currently implemented or intuitive it led to the development of a new theoretical explanation: <i>RAD Teaching Practice.</i></p>

<p>This study examined the practice of sexting (the exchange of nude or semi-nude photos through text messaging) among 401 undergraduate students ages 18 to 25 at California State University, Fresno. A computer survey with separate tracks for sexters and non-sexters differentiated data between the two groups. The researcher found that one in three students sexted. Pearson&rsquo;s &chi;² test indicated a statistical significance between female non-Hispanic White casual daters and sexting. Among key findings, a majority of sexters infrequently exchanged a small number of photos with their boyfriends or girlfriends. Face cropping and smartphone applications were used most often for protection against harmful effects. Less than a fifth of respondents had their sext forwarded without their consent or were bullied with the photo. Over half of the students that sexted perceived their sexting activity led to having sex with that person. Those who did not engage in sexting perceived sexters to be unaware of the risks attached to the practice and perceived sexting as inappropriate. The findings demonstrated a range of risky and protective behaviors, experiences, and perceptions exist among Fresno State students that have adopted or rejected the practice of sexting. Recommendations for future studies include further exploration on the sexting behaviors between relationship partners as well as the types of applications used to sext. </p>

<p> <b>Scope of Study:</b> This study investigates the potential for a diagnosis of Internet Addiction and it&rsquo;s associated subtypes as a conditional diagnosis in future revisions of the DSM-5. This research collects, compiles, and analyzes the existing literature on Internet Addiction and each of its subtypes, as well as the multiple interrelated topics regarding the broad topic of addiction, the generalized topic of behavioral addictions, as well as specific representative behavioral addictions. This comprehensive analysis facilitates a deductive examination of the potential validity of Internet Addiction as a mental health disorder. This study also investigates the decision by the American Psychiatric Association (APA) to fundamentally alter the formally proposed diagnosis of Internet Addiction and insert instead Internet Gaming Disorder as a conditional diagnosis in the first edition of the DSM-5. </p><p> <b>Findings and Conclusions:</b> Over 1,000 peer-reviewed academic articles and books were found on the various topics investigated, nearly 500 of which were cited in the present study. The findings of this study indicate sufficient research for the APA to accept the broader diagnosis of Internet Addiction with subtypes into a revised DSM-5. The study closes with three possible speculative conclusions as to why the APA made the decision to deny the Internet Addition diagnosis in favor of its own Internet Gaming Disorder diagnosis in the current DSM-5.</p>

<p> Since the reauthorization of Individuals with Disabilities Education Act in 1997 and then later, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act in 2004, students that display behaviors that impede learning require that a Functional Behavior Assessment (FBA) be conducted for the development of a behavior plan that is focused on Positive Behavior Support (PBS) strategies. The traditional FBA measures and analyzes environmental variables that trigger problem behaviors; however, it does not measure adaptive academic behavior skills that are needed for academic success in the classroom environment. This study&rsquo;s literature review examines the reasons for incorporating a strength-based model for measuring academic behaviors for a more comprehensive analysis of a student&rsquo;s strengths as well as deficits. Adaptive/academic behavior skill measurements are also appropriate for identifying and teaching replacement skills. This study examined an academic behavior tool that helps educators to identify both the student&rsquo;s adaptive academic behavior strengths as well as behavior deficits during the FBA process. In addition, psychometric properties for the statistical relationships between behavior variables were measured for consistency, standardization, and better overall assistance for the classroom educator. </p><p> The findings of this analysis support that the psychometrics properties of the academic behavior assessment tool meets the measurements for a reliable and valid tool. The Alpha Cronbach Reliability test measured .96. The principle components factor analysis with a varimax rotation was measured. The factor analysis identified the connections between the studies demographic variables, and the relationship that existed amongst the 25 survey items of the tool. The eigenvalues greater than 1.0 resulted in a four-factor solution that accounted for 69.81% of the variance. Given that the first factor was six times or more times larger than any other factor, a decision to retain only one factor and retain all 25 items to create a total score. </p><p> Based on the psychometric measurements of this study, this academic behavior assessment tool possibly will help classroom educators address problem behaviors by identifying the appropriate replacement skills needed for the development of the BIP, interventions, and the FBA process. Additional findings suggest that, used as a screening tool, it may identify skill deficits with preschool-aged children, primary students, special education, and the RtI model, to connect both the academic and behavioral components needed to be taught for academic success.</p>

<p> Although gratitude may seem straightforward, it is a complex construct comprised of cognitive, emotional and behavioral elements. Gratitude has been presented as a positive psychological character trait, coping response, attitude, moral virtue, emotion, and habit (Emmons, McCullough, &amp; Tsang, 2003), and significant overlap exists among these definitional presentations (Lambert, Graham, &amp; Fincham, 2009). Despite definitional limitations, promising evidence indicates that gratitude can help survivors positively process and cope with trauma and contribute to the post-trauma recovery experience (Kashdan, Uswatte, &amp; Julian, 2006; Vernon, Dillon, &amp; Steiner, 2009). Yet, there is a lack of research examining how gratitude is expressed in psychotherapy with those who have experienced trauma. </p><p> The purpose of the current study was to qualitatively explore expressions of gratitude by psychotherapy clients who were trauma survivors. A deductive coding system was used, based on existing gratitude literature that allows researchers to comprehensively examine different types of gratitude. This study also compared gratitude expressions that took place during trauma and non-trauma discussions, which is an area of research that had not been examined. </p><p> In contrast to existing assessment and research, the findings from this study revealed that clients tended to express gratitude infrequently, in a <i> Narrow</i> manner or in a manner that was <i>Not Otherwise Specified </i>. Findings revealed that client expressions of gratitude were captured by four of the nine proposed coding categories: personal gratitude, gratitude for specific benefits received from a higher power, gratitude expressions that are not otherwise specified, and generalized gratitude as an attitude, in order of frequency. </p><p> It is hoped that the current study will contribute to the definition, understanding and measurement of gratitude in therapy. By demonstrating the extent that gratitude is utilized in psychotherapy with clients who have experienced trauma, the results of this study can be used as a baseline from which to compare results of future studies that evaluate the effects of training therapists in gratitude interventions. This study may also help therapists develop a deeper understanding of a gratitude that emerges as a result of trauma, which can potentially inform their use of gratitude in future assessment and treatment. </p>

<p> Emerging adulthood is recognized as a growing developmental stage that varies within and across cultures. Existing research generally characterizes this period as one of identity exploration, instability, self-reflection, and optimism. For many in this cohort, life events that were once organized into a stable sequence such as entering the workforce, marriage, and having children are increasingly a highly individualized and somewhat unstructured trajectory. This lack of structure provides opportunities and potential challenges to those transitioning from adolescence to adulthood. To this end, experiential acceptance may be an important target skill for intervention in guiding emerging adults through this tumultuous period. </p><p> Experiential acceptance is multiply defined in the literature, but is generally understood to be a present-focused approach that encourages a willingness to engage with one&rsquo;s moment-to-moment experience, nonjudgment of moment-to-moment experiencing, and nonattachment to thoughts or feelings. This focus may be useful for both therapists to use as an intervention tool in helping clients to form an integrated sense of self; a developmental task that is predictive of mental health in young adults. Despite the apparent fit between experiential acceptance and the emerging adult age range, no studies to date have explored experiential acceptance as an intervention with this population. </p><p> Accordingly, the purpose of the current study was to qualitatively explore how therapists facilitate experiential acceptance with emerging adult clients. A sample of 5 client-therapist pairs from community counseling centers was selected, and two videotaped therapy sessions for each participant pair were analyzed. Inductive content analysis was employed, using open coding and abstraction methodology to create a hierarchy of themes. Results indicated that experiential acceptance, overall, was rarely employed by trainee therapists in psychotherapy sessions with emerging adults. The one parent theme that emerged across participants was termed Increasing Awareness. Comments aimed at increasing flexibility in thinking were also observed, but not across participants. It is hoped that this study will provide foundational information on experiential acceptance use in psychotherapy with emerging adults, which could be used to promote more attention to skill and theory integration in clinical training and spur future research on experiential acceptance use in therapy-as-usual.</p>

<p> Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) has emerged as one of the most commonly diagnosed disorders and has been shown to have a negative impact on quality oflife, adversely affecting individuals scholastically, socially, and financially as adolescents and into adulthood. The goal of this study was to identify predictors of depression amongst children with ADHD to better develop early treatment methods. Analysis of the 2009 California Healthcare Interview Survey (CHIS) was conducted in identifying determinants of depression. Two hypotheses were tested. The first found that gender was a predictor of depression; however, the hypothesis that girls had a higher chance of developing depression was not supported. The second produced an insignificant relationship between depression and race, failing to support the assumption that Hispanics would be more susceptible to depression. Further discussion was provided on possible applications to clinical methods and implications to future research.</p>

<p> Technology has, without a doubt, altered the social fabric of society. Mediated forms of communication have paved the way for more efficient production, and the vast amount of information available online has given people the opportunity to be more informed than ever. However, the rise of mediated communication has also presented a number of new threats. The current study focused on one of these threats, cyberbullying, and was interested in looking at how parents talk about and understand their child's cyberbullying behavior.</p><p> This study had the goal of uncovering if parents talk to their child about cyberbullying, and how they approach these conversations. The intent of this study was grounded in the idea that parent-child communication is a valuable tool for developing belief systems, as well as making sustainable, positive and effective changes to behavior and perceptions.</p><p> Ultimately, parents do not avoid conversations about cyberbullying with their children. Parents structure these conversations with the intention of positively changing their child's behavior and beliefs. Specifically, parents talk about cyberbullying with their children as an effort to decrease the perceived risk their child faces if he or she participates in cyberbullying. However, these conversations are limited because they are grounded in misrepresented media coverage of cyberbullying which intensifies cyberbullying behaviors. As such, media producers must work toward presenting more all encompassing and wide spread coverage of cyberbullying as an effort to educate parents about the variety of behaviors which relate to cyberbullying.</p>

<p> Compared to actual infidelity, little research has been carried out on intended infidelity. Based on male-female differences in sexual interest, stronger male than female interest in extra-dyadic sex (EDS) was predicted. The effects of relationship quality and individual differences in sexual interest, sensation seeking, and masculinity on intended EDS were also assessed. Males scored significantly higher than females on almost all sexual interest variables and indicated a significantly greater interest in EDS. </p><p> Sexual interest, as measured by socio-sexual orientation (SO), was a much stronger predictor of intended EDS than gender or relationship quality. SO fully mediated the effect of gender on EDS; however, sensation seeking and masculinity revealed no mediation. Contrary to expectations, relationship satisfaction had a greater impact on intended EDS at higher levels than at lower levels of SO. Willingness to have sex with someone who is already in a relationship proved the strongest predictor of intended EDS. </p><p> <i>Keywords:</i> Infidelity, Male, Female, Sexuality, Extra-dyadic sex (EDS), Relationship quality, Socio-sexual orientation (SO).</p>