Research Doctorate - Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / The phenomenon of belongingness has intuitive appeal. Empirical literature from the disciplines of social science and psychology reveals that the need to belong exerts a powerful influence on cognitive processes, emotional patterns, behavioural responses, health and wellbeing, and that failure to satisfy this need can have devastating consequences. There are assertions that people who are deprived of belongingness are more likely to experience diminished self-esteem, increased stress and anxiety, depression, a decrease in general wellbeing and happiness, impaired cognition and an increase in affiliative behaviours, such as compliance and conformity. In the nursing literature, while there is paucity of studies about this salient issue, there are inferences that diminished belongingness may impede students' motivation for learning and influence the degree to which they are willing to conform rather than adopt a questioning approach to clinical practice. These findings are of concern to a profession that seeks to prepare innovative, confident, competent professionals with a commitment to self-directed learning; and they require careful investigation. This study set out to identify the relationship between belongingness and the clinical placement experiences of pre-registration nursing students by measuring the extent to which students experience belongingness related to their clinical placements, and by exploring the factors that impact on and are consequences of that experience. Third-year students were recruited from two Australian universities-one in New South Wales and one in Queensland-and from one university in the south of England. This was a mixed-method case study where 362 students participated in an anonymous online survey termed the Belongingness Scale-Clinical Placement Experience (BES-CPE), and 18 of those students participated in in-depth semi-structured interviews. The quantitative data from the survey were subjected to descriptive and inferential statistical analysis. In comparing the extent to which nursing students experience belongingness, it was determined that the mean BES-CPE scores of participants from the university in England were statistically higher than participants from either of the Australian universities. This finding may be partly explained by differences in the duration of clinical placements and the mentorship models in use at the three universities. Of the demographic variables analysed, previous or concurrent nursing experience, family members with nursing experience, gender and country of birth were not a strong influence on students' experience of belongingness. The effects of age and English as a first language were less certain. The qualitative interview data were thematically analysed. The experiences and perspectives of the participants from each of the three sites were remarkably similar in many respects. They described placement experiences that spanned a continuum from those that promoted a high degree of belongingness to those that provoked intense feelings of alienation. Belongingness was seen to be both a deeply personal and a contextually mediated experience. It was the interpersonal relationships forged with the registered nurses that students worked with on a day-to-day basis that exerted the single most important influence on their sense of belonging. However, students' sense of belonging was also influenced by a range of other individual, interpersonal, contextual and organisational factors. A number of important consequences of belongingness were identified. These included affective consequences such as feeling safe, comfortable, satisfied and happy within the clinical environment. Belongingness was related to nursing students' self-concept, degree of self-efficacy, the extent to which they were willing to question or conform to poor practice, and their future career decisions. However, it was the relationship between belongingness and students' capacity and motivation for learning to nurse that emerged as a critical and recurring theme. Given that clinical placements are specifically designed to facilitate authentic learning opportunities, this is a significant finding that has repercussions at both the micro and macro levels. By way of conclusion the practical implications of the study are brought to the foreground and made explicit through the presentation of the conceptual framework that emerged from the study. The Ascent to Competence conceptual framework applies a modified version of Maslow's hierarchy of needs to the clinical placement experience of nursing students, and sheds light on the challenges associated with the particular needs of students who are learning to nurse in contemporary practice environments.

The study described in this thesis represents one of the first attempts to explore belongingness as a practice among aid workers, and to contribute to our understanding of how people account for belonging in situ. In psychology, belongingness has predominantly been studied in laboratory settings, or among those who report not belonging in some way. This has led to concerns about ecological validity, and a neglect of ‘real world’ contexts in the development of belongingness theory. Through semi‐structured interviews with 25 international aid workers, using web‐based calling software (Skype), a discursive psychological approach was employed to rework belongingness as a discursive practice. Belonging was found to be an activity for which participants made themselves accountable, and in so doing worked to manage issues of blame and justification in their interactions. Aid workers constructed fitting in as necessary, but ultimately futile, formulating accounts around inherent and immutable differences with local people. The analysis also explored the ways in which participants constructed efforts to achieve belonging; much of which involved the manipulation of appearance, particularly the use of strategic dressing. Through analysis of participants’ treatment of belonging in interaction it was found that, in practice, belonging was formulated as a continuum rather than a dichotomy.

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The purpose of this dissertation was to investigate the phenomenon of whole-school communal singing at two Canadian independent secondary schools. Research questions included: What does the practice of whole-school communal singing look like, how is it experienced by participants, and how has the practice been initiated and maintained? Previous research on whole school singing at the secondary school level is scant. This suited an exploratory, phenomenological research methodology for the present study. Pascale’s (2005) two aesthetics of singing provided the theoretical framework. The idea that choral singing can be approached through a broader lens than is currently practiced in typical choral education contexts helped to characterize whole school singing as a communal singing practice. Research literature explored prior to data analysis focused on communal singing, defined as participatory singing by everyone in a non-choir community. Examples included crowd singing at sports games, at protest marches, and in churches. Communal singing in North America was more popular in the early 20th century than today, which may explain its rareness in contemporary secondary schools. Data were collected through interviews with 17 current and former students, faculty and administrators at two schools. Analysis was conducted using thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006), supported by NVivo software, and resulted in five overarching themes. The first was that all the research participants expressed a strong positive regard for the practice of whole school singing; the second was that communal singing may contribute to student belongingness. The third overarching theme was that communal singing appears to mediate emotions and may contribute to student wellness; fourth, that the approach taken to whole school singing at the two schools prioritizes full participation over achieving aesthetic qualities typically espoused by performance choirs. The fifth theme was that whole school singing at the secondary school level is not easy to initiate and maintain, but requires specific leadership, intention, and strategy in order to create a fully participative, engaging, and joyful experience in a secondary school context. Post data analysis, findings were compared and contrasted with those from related research. Recommendations are provided for educators who may wish to consider incorporating communal singing into school life.

He kopu puta tahi, he taura whiri tātou; whiringa a nuku, whiringa a rangi, te whatia e Issue of one womb, we are a rope woven of many strands; woven on earth, woven in heaven, it will not break (Rev Māori Marsden, 1992) Ngati Te Takinga is a hapū (sub-tribe) belonging to the Iwi (tribe) Ngati Pikiao. An affiliated member of the Te Arawa confederation of tribes, Ngati Pikiao occupies the Okere and Rotoiti Lakes district of Rotorua in the central North Island of Aotearoa New Zealand. This thesis seeks to acknowledge and address the concerns that Ngati Te Takinga has regarding impending cultural discontinuity. The concerns arise due to the hapū's limited human capability and capacity being the result of three things. Firstly, the ongoing demise of tribal elders (and leaders) and the subsequent loss to the hapū of cultural knowledge, skills, leadership and expertise. Secondly, the low numbers of adept, culturally proficient successors 'coming through' (to replace the elders) and finally, the detribalised and diasporic (dispersed) nature of our people. The hapū and the marae Te Takinga (a last outwardly discernible bastion of Ngati Te Takinga cultural identity and distinction) are jeopardised as a result of these phenomenon. This thesis is part of a hapū strategy that attempts to address these problems. Positing the reconnection of our dispersed Ngati Te Takinga 'away-dwellers' as a beginning solution, the central questions raised by this thesis are how [does] Ngati Te Takinga 'home-dweller' discourse impact on the 'coming home' experiences and 'reconnection' of Ngati Te Takinga away-dwellers? and what are the [are there] implications for Ngati Te Takinga cultural continuity? The maintenance of Ngati Te Takinga cultural continuity forms the aho mātua or main thread of this work. Using narrative enquiry as a broad methodological framework,stories were gathered from four different groups of Ngati Te Takinga peoples. The groups were home-dwellers (mana whenua or ahi kaa), te ahi tere (away-dwellers who have returned home to live); te ahi tere (away-dwellers who intend returning in the future) and te ahi tere (away-dwellers who have no intention of returning home to live). The stories (narratives) investigated notions of home, belongingness and Māori identity in relation to the trichotomy of the connection, disconnection and the reconnection of Ngati Te Takinga peoples; the stories were analysed and co-constructed with participants for meaning. The stories showed that while the hapū aspires to gather up the strengths of a dispersed people to reinvigorate our culture and the marae, existing and competing discourses around authenticity, authority and Ngati Te Takinga identity create a tension between the home (mana whenua/ahi kaa) and away-dwelling Ngati Te Takinga people; including those away-dwellers who have returned. As a basic requirement, this tension must be diminished in order to build the relationships necessary to improve hapū allegiance (whānaungatanga), to build hapū strength and to maintain hapū culture and identity. As a priority, decolonising strategies that facilitate an understanding of diversity, promote participation, maintain tikanga and include our away-dwellers, our 'returnees' and/or our disconnected people in our hapū-marae interactions, must be considered, developed, promoted and practiced.

Framed in Baumeister and Leary’s (1995) theory of belongingness, this study uncovers ways in which a sense of belonging can affect our lives and specifically our performance in musical groups. The theory of belongingness explains that it is a fundamental human need to feel belongingness by forming positive and meaningful relationships with others, and also describes how to achieve and maintain this belongingness. Baumeister and Leary (1995) state that in order for belongingness to be a fundamental human motivation, many criteria must be present among individuals who share social bonds, and satisfying this need requires both frequent interaction and caring context. While there is little research on sense of belonging among musical groups, the experiences that are typical in such groups lend themselves well to the concepts outlined by the authors, making them ideal settings in which to study their theory. In light of Baumeister and Leary’s research, questions addressed in this study were: 1. How do study participants describe belonging to an orchestra? 2. With whom do participants share frequent interaction, where do these interactions occur, and how are sub-groups of the larger ensemble formed? 3. How do participants describe caring context within an orchestra, and how are social bonds formed in light of this caring context? 4. How does sense of belonging affect the participants while playing and building bonds in an orchestra and its sub-groups? Using narrative methods as described by Clandinin and Connelly (2000), this study highlights the engagement of three participants (Robert, Ana, and myself) as we drew out hidden meanings of belongingness in our lives, focusing on participation in an orchestra. My own experience of joining an orchestra provided unique insight and allowed me to be an active participant in constructing narratives along with Robert and Ana. By interacting in the field with the other participants and experiencing what they experienced, I was able to better relate to the feelings of belongingness they described. Field data were collected in the form of recorded audio, observations, personal journal entries, and email correspondence. These data were transcribed and then became interim research texts that the participants and I co-composed together. Data were analyzed and interim and final research texts were written with Clandinin and Connelly’s three-dimensional inquiry space in mind.

The prevalence of sexual harassment among college women has been reported to range from 33% to 97% (Klein, Apple, & Khan, 2011; Yoon, Funk, & Kropf, 2010) across the lifespan. In any one year of college, the prevalence of sexual harassment reported by women ranges from 33% to 57% (Crown & Roberts, 2007; Huerta, Cortina, Pang, Torges, & Magley, 2006). The severity and frequency of sexual harassment has been found to be related to reports of psychological distress (Nielsen & Einarsen, 2012), feelings of shame (Yoon et al., 2010), anxiety and depression symptoms (Murdoch, Pryor, Polusny, & Gackstetter, 2007), and social isolation (Pershing, 2003). These consequences of sexual harassment are concerning given the association between depression, isolation, and suicidality (Boardman, Grimbaldeston, Handley, Jones, & Willmott, 1999; DeWall, Gilman, Sharif, Carboni, & Rice, 2012). While there are numerous studies documenting the negative consequences experienced by women who are sexually harassed, little is known about the relationship of sexual harassment to the more severe negative outcomes of suicidal ideation and self-harm behaviors and what variables might facilitate this hypothesized relationship. Thus, the purpose of this study is to explore whether the experience of sexual harassment is related to increased suicidality and if this hypothesized relationship is mediated or moderated by other factors such as an individual’s response style and/or degree of connection to or isolation from others.

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A plethora of interdisciplinary research has highlighted the increase of global mobility and diasporic communities. While talent emigration has shown to have a multiplicity of benefits, particularly as gaining diversified sets of skills is essential in the face of globalization. However, widely researched concepts such as the ‘brain drain’ have conveyed the dark side of talent emigration and the ramification of countries’ desiccation for scarce skills. With a history fraught with tensions and immense loss of talent, South Africa is a country in continuous transformation, but is on the cusp of another significant ‘brain drain’. Hence, this study aimed to explore the micro-diffusions and conditions in the South African context which proliferate the emigration of talented potential leaders. The research design was qualitative, with specific use of the actors approach as methodology to gain insight into perspectives of South Africans living, working and studying in Sweden. Twenty-one participants from five cities were involved in the focus group dialogues, namely; Gothenburg, Kalmar, Lund, Linköping and Stockholm. As a participant-observer, I too was involved in the sense-making of how talent delineated their identities and relation to South Africa. Certain aspects of the findings were expected regarding the conditions which serve as push factors for emigration, such as participants’ frustrations and despondency with increasing rates of crime, unemployment and corruption. However, the most accentuated and poignant micro-diffusion which perpetuates talent’s emigration derives from conflicts of identity and belongingness, deep-seated inherited guilt and helplessness. Whilst there is a desire to ameliorate the social ills which plague the country, there also seems to be a palpable need for escapism away from the persistent historical complexities of South Africa.