While studies suggest that figurative, or non-literal, meanings are automatically activated in single language users, little is known about how language proficiency may influence the automaticity of non-literal meaning activation. The present research sought to address this issue by comparing figurative language activation in Spanish-English bilinguals. An interference paradigm (Glucksberg, Gildea & Bookin, 1982) was used in which participants were to judge the literal truth or falsity of statements of the form Some Xs are Ys. Judgments on this task are typically slower to statements that, though literally false, are metaphorically true (e.g., Some lawyers are sharks), suggesting that metaphorical meanings are non-optionally activated (at least in single language users). The present research involved four experiments: Experiment 1 conducted with English-speaking monolinguals, replicated the metaphor interference effect; in Experiment 2 the effect was replicated in English-dominant and in balanced bilinguals tested only in English. Experiment 3 conducted with bilinguals tested in both languages, showed that the metaphor interference effect was not obtained in either language in English-dominant bilinguals and was obtained in Spanish only in the balanced group. The findings from Experiments 1 and 2 support the view that nonliteral (metaphoric) meanings are automatically accessed in monolinguals and bilinguals alike. Experiment 3 involved a fewer number of metaphor trials per language, raising the possibility that this procedural difference may have led to a weakening of the metaphor interference effect. This possibility was directly tested in Experiment 4, conducted with English-speaking monolinguals presented with the same number of metaphor trials as the bilinguals in Experiment 3. The results showed a clear metaphor interference, even with the reduced number of trials. As such, the findings of Experiment 3, where a metaphor interference effect was obtained only for Spanish items, are somewhat equivocal: at face value, they suggest that the effect is modulated by language proficiency. Alternatively, the metaphor interference effect may turn out to be present in both languages, but may simply have been obscured by variability owing to the small sample size per language order. Which of these two interpretations turns out to be valid will depend on additional testing. Implications of the present findings for theories of the organization of the bilingual representational system are addressed.

The present investigation evaluates the effects of multiple language acquisition history on brain functional organization for language. To address a range of findings concerning the functional cerebral lateralization of the native (L1) and second languages (L2) of bilinguals, a meta-analysis was conducted on 71 studies that used behavioral paradigms to assess bilingual laterality. The predictive value of a number of theoretically identified moderators of cerebral asymmetry for language was assessed, namely, the age of second language (L2) acquisition, fluency in theL2, participant sex, experimental paradigm, linguistic task demands, relatedness of L1 and L2 structures, and context of language use. The results revealed no differences in the laterality of first and second languages within L2 acquisition age groups. Of the moderators tested, age of L2 acquisition was identified as the most reliable predictor of the direction of laterality. The conditions under which systematic similarities and differences in language lateralization among bilingual subgroups emerge are discussed in terms of implications for current models and theories concerning the functional organization of language in the bilingual brain.

In this study, I explored the language transmission experiences of migrant mothers living in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan. Specifically, I examined the meanings and stakes of language transmission experiences, taking into account the migrant mothers constructions of first languages and/or English transmission experiences with their children in the context of migration. Employing (a) Brunners (1986) and Goods (1994) narrative approach to ethnography and critical phenomenology as well as (b) Kleinmans (1995, 1999) theory of moral experience and Godbouts (1998) formulations of social exchanges as my primary theoretical framework, I carried out in-depth, open-ended interviews with 13 mothers from nine different countries, namely, Afghanistan, Argentina, Chile, Japan, India, Iran, Russia, South Korea, and Ukraine. The resulting language transmission narratives were then organized into four distinct language transmission plots, which were formednot on the basis of ethnicitybut on the basis of similar migration trajectories and background characteristics. Some of the most noteworthy findings were as follows: (1) portrayals of the objects of language transmission (e.g., first languages and English) and of language transmission experiences were not static as previous literature has suggested, but dynamic, varying across time and social context; (2) the stakes involved in the transmission of first languages were depicted as high as the stakes inherent in the transmission of English; and (3) the long-term language transmission goal of at least half of mothers in the sample was not simply bilingualism, but instead multilingualism. In the Conclusion of the thesis, I not only detailed how the present study contributed to the literature on language transmission, but I also elaborated on the following topics: (a) the role of subjunctivizing tactics on language transmission narratives, (b) language transmission as an intersubjective enterprise, (c) language transmission as a plural and dynamic process, and (d) language transmission as moral experience. The applications and limitations of the study as well as directions for future research were also presented in the concluding chapter.

In the context of language use of Romanian migrants living in Canada, this thesis examines the linguistic changes and the contributing social, personal, and affective factors involved in the maintenance of a migrant’s first language (L1) as she or he simultaneously acquires a second language (L2) in an L2-dominant environment. Specifically, it investigates the incidence of L1 attrition in the bilingual group, the existence of a possible systematic relationship between the levels of L1 and L2 proficiency, and the influence of sociolinguistic and cognitive factors on L1 attrition and L2 acquisition in bilingual contexts. L1 attrition is defined here as both the reduction of L1 language skills and the restructuring of the L1 according to L2 patterns to the point where communication in the L1 is impaired. The present study involves extensive elicitation of written and oral data in both Romanian and English. First, an assessment of the participants’ history of language acquisition, their attitudes, their patterns of language use, and the nature of their social networks was conducted via sociolinguistic questionnaires and individual interviews. The language aptitude tests used in this project examined phonetic memory, vocabulary learning, and grammatical inferencing abilities. As an indicator of overall language proficiency, formal tests (a C-test and a verbal fluency task) and samples of spontaneous speech in the form of film commenting tasks were analyzed for fluency and grammatical complexity. The results showed that L1 attrition is a possible, but not obligatory, outcome in the first generation of migrants. With the exception of two participants, the majority of the bilinguals in this study, while not perfect matches for the L1 monolinguals, remained within the L1 native range even after a long residence in the L2 country. While proficiency trade-off patterns are not observable at the group level, they were evidenced in the cases of the two attriters identified in this study. With respect to cognitive predictor variables, L1 maintenance does not appear to be a direct function of linguistic aptitude. At the same time, levels of L1 attrition and L2 achievement are dependent on a combination of attitudinal and personal background variables.

In the context of language use of Romanian migrants living in Canada, this thesis examines the linguistic changes and the contributing social, personal, and affective factors involved in the maintenance of a migrant’s first language (L1) as she or he simultaneously acquires a second language (L2) in an L2-dominant environment. Specifically, it investigates the incidence of L1 attrition in the bilingual group, the existence of a possible systematic relationship between the levels of L1 and L2 proficiency, and the influence of sociolinguistic and cognitive factors on L1 attrition and L2 acquisition in bilingual contexts. L1 attrition is defined here as both the reduction of L1 language skills and the restructuring of the L1 according to L2 patterns to the point where communication in the L1 is impaired. The present study involves extensive elicitation of written and oral data in both Romanian and English. First, an assessment of the participants’ history of language acquisition, their attitudes, their patterns of language use, and the nature of their social networks was conducted via sociolinguistic questionnaires and individual interviews. The language aptitude tests used in this project examined phonetic memory, vocabulary learning, and grammatical inferencing abilities. As an indicator of overall language proficiency, formal tests (a C-test and a verbal fluency task) and samples of spontaneous speech in the form of film commenting tasks were analyzed for fluency and grammatical complexity. The results showed that L1 attrition is a possible, but not obligatory, outcome in the first generation of migrants. With the exception of two participants, the majority of the bilinguals in this study, while not perfect matches for the L1 monolinguals, remained within the L1 native range even after a long residence in the L2 country. While proficiency trade-off patterns are not observable at the group level, they were evidenced in the cases of the two attriters identified in this study. With respect to cognitive predictor variables, L1 maintenance does not appear to be a direct function of linguistic aptitude. At the same time, levels of L1 attrition and L2 achievement are dependent on a combination of attitudinal and personal background variables.

In this study, I explored the language transmission experiences of migrant mothers living in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan. Specifically, I examined the meanings and stakes of language transmission experiences, taking into account the migrant mothers constructions of first languages and/or English transmission experiences with their children in the context of migration. Employing (a) Brunners (1986) and Goods (1994) narrative approach to ethnography and critical phenomenology as well as (b) Kleinmans (1995, 1999) theory of moral experience and Godbouts (1998) formulations of social exchanges as my primary theoretical framework, I carried out in-depth, open-ended interviews with 13 mothers from nine different countries, namely, Afghanistan, Argentina, Chile, Japan, India, Iran, Russia, South Korea, and Ukraine. The resulting language transmission narratives were then organized into four distinct language transmission plots, which were formednot on the basis of ethnicitybut on the basis of similar migration trajectories and background characteristics. Some of the most noteworthy findings were as follows: (1) portrayals of the objects of language transmission (e.g., first languages and English) and of language transmission experiences were not static as previous literature has suggested, but dynamic, varying across time and social context; (2) the stakes involved in the transmission of first languages were depicted as high as the stakes inherent in the transmission of English; and (3) the long-term language transmission goal of at least half of mothers in the sample was not simply bilingualism, but instead multilingualism. In the Conclusion of the thesis, I not only detailed how the present study contributed to the literature on language transmission, but I also elaborated on the following topics: (a) the role of subjunctivizing tactics on language transmission narratives, (b) language transmission as an intersubjective enterprise, (c) language transmission as a plural and dynamic process, and (d) language transmission as moral experience. The applications and limitations of the study as well as directions for future research were also presented in the concluding chapter.

While studies suggest that figurative, or non-literal, meanings are automatically activated in single language users, little is known about how language proficiency may influence the automaticity of non-literal meaning activation. The present research sought to address this issue by comparing figurative language activation in Spanish-English bilinguals. An interference paradigm (Glucksberg, Gildea & Bookin, 1982) was used in which participants were to judge the literal truth or falsity of statements of the form Some Xs are Ys. Judgments on this task are typically slower to statements that, though literally false, are metaphorically true (e.g., Some lawyers are sharks), suggesting that metaphorical meanings are non-optionally activated (at least in single language users). The present research involved four experiments: Experiment 1 conducted with English-speaking monolinguals, replicated the metaphor interference effect; in Experiment 2 the effect was replicated in English-dominant and in balanced bilinguals tested only in English. Experiment 3 conducted with bilinguals tested in both languages, showed that the metaphor interference effect was not obtained in either language in English-dominant bilinguals and was obtained in Spanish only in the balanced group. The findings from Experiments 1 and 2 support the view that nonliteral (metaphoric) meanings are automatically accessed in monolinguals and bilinguals alike. Experiment 3 involved a fewer number of metaphor trials per language, raising the possibility that this procedural difference may have led to a weakening of the metaphor interference effect. This possibility was directly tested in Experiment 4, conducted with English-speaking monolinguals presented with the same number of metaphor trials as the bilinguals in Experiment 3. The results showed a clear metaphor interference, even with the reduced number of trials. As such, the findings of Experiment 3, where a metaphor interference effect was obtained only for Spanish items, are somewhat equivocal: at face value, they suggest that the effect is modulated by language proficiency. Alternatively, the metaphor interference effect may turn out to be present in both languages, but may simply have been obscured by variability owing to the small sample size per language order. Which of these two interpretations turns out to be valid will depend on additional testing. Implications of the present findings for theories of the organization of the bilingual representational system are addressed.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Texas at Austin, 2001. / Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 144-151). Available also in a digital version from Dissertation Abstracts.

Bilinguals are generally adept at segregating their two competing languages and switching between them when contextually appropriate, although it has been shown that switching languages incurs a reaction time delay, or switch cost (Kolers, 1966). These switch costs are modulated by language dominance, with bilinguals evidencing greater delays when switching into their dominant language relative to their non-dominant language (e.g. Meuter & Allport, 1999). While these asymmetrical switch costs have formed the basis for theories of bilingual language separation and selection, the key factor of language context, the degree to which each language is employed in a given paradigm or conversation, has yet to be considered. In addition, previous research and subsequent theories of language selection have focused exclusively on the lexical level, yet given the distinct phonetic categories in a bilingual’s two languages (Caramazza et al., 1973), selection must also occur at the phonetic level. Addressing these gaps in the literature, this dissertation investigates the language switching costs and phonetic production of Spanish-English bilinguals in two experimental paradigms: a cued picture-naming task and an oral production task. In both studies, bilinguals (English-dominant, Spanish-dominant, and balanced bilinguals) produced language switches in varying language contexts, from monolingual to bilingual. Analyses focus on switch costs, error rates, and phonetic production, as a means to further the understanding of the language switching mechanism at the lexical and phonetic levels. Drawing on results from the two experimental paradigms, this dissertation makes several major contributions to the ongoing discussion regarding bilingual language selection. First, this study provides evidence for a gradient nature of the language switching mechanism at the lexical level. Second, it contributes an examination of the effects of language switching at the phonetic level, demonstrating asymmetrical phonetic transfer. And third, parallels are drawn between the underlying effects of language switching and the phonetic realizations produced in connected speech. Implications are considered for theories of bilingual language selection, and a gradient account of the Inhibitory Control Model (Green, 1986) is proposed at both the lexical and phonetic levels. / text

The setting up of the lexical category ‘adjective’ in Chinese has been a controversial topic in linguistics. This is due to the phenomenon that in Chinese, among the group of words which denote properties of noun phrases, there is a notable amount manifesting the characteristics of verbs. That is, they can be potentially qualified as both verbs and adjectives. Over the years, studies on syntactic distributional patterns and semantics on this group of words have been carried out in order to address the problem. However, a theory which adequately describes this multifunctional category in the Chinese language still seems to be lacking. To shed light on the issue, the current thesis investigates the behavior of words which are potentially considered as ‘adjectives’ occurring naturally in a Cantonese-English bilingual child’s corpus data. Patterns of child language development can provide a new perspective to the adjective-verb controversy in Cantonese from the viewpoint of language acquisition. At the same time, they might review whether interference between English and Cantonese occur. In this thesis, the use of adjectival verbs for attribution and predication, and the manner of their being modified are discussed. While the results in our data set do not show that English has prominent influence on the development of Cantonese in our subject, one of our major findings is that the distributional pattern of adjectival verbs in the child’s Cantonese is predominantly predicative. The current results contrast with theories supporting attributive use of adjectives as being the prototype. / published_or_final_version / Linguistics / Master / Master of Philosophy