Sediment delivery is a major problem in the Green River, Kentucky, home of 71 of the state’s 103 known mussel species and 151 fish species. The river also provides water for many of its surrounding counties. This research focuses on how suspended sediment loads, grain size, and sediment concentration during runoff events are related to watershed characteristics. The research characterized suspended sediment loads, grain size, and sediment concentration during runoff events and how they were related to watershed characteristics such as hydro-climatic regime, watershed size, geology and soils, topography and landuse conditions and land cover conditions. The study focused on Brush Creek and Pitman Creek watersheds in the Upper Green River Basin. This research can help in the planning and development of effective environmental strategies by screening out mitigation measures that would not be effective for implementation to minimize sediment load and suspended sediment concentration in the Green River, thereby improving the water quality of the river. Water quality was monitored using data sondes positioned at selected sites in the two watersheds. Water samples were collected during turbidity thresholds of 100 NTU and analyzed for suspended sediment concentrations. Regression models between ‘discharge and stage’ and also between ‘average turbidity and suspended sediment concentration’ were formulated and load estimates were made and compared. Four sets of samples were collected, two at Brush Creek on 11 April (Brush Creek’s event 1) and 3 May (Brush Creek’s event 2) and the other two at Pitman Creek on the 12 February (Pitman Creek’s event 1) and 3 March (Pitman Creek’s event 2) all in the year 2008. The suspended sediment samples collected for all four events were well graded but had relatively more silt than clay and sand. This could be due to the fact that more time and energy was needed to break the bonds in clay minerals or particles and also to the fact that more energy was also needed to transport sand compared to silt. Brush Creek watershed’s particles had smaller grain sizes than Pitman Creek watershed’s particles. All four events showed clockwise hysteresis indicating that most of the sediments from both watersheds during the events were derived from the bed and banks of the channel or area adjacent to the channel. The 11 April event (Brush Creek’s event 1) produced an estimated load of 1.1 x 105 kg and a sediment yield of 5.3 x 102 kg/km2. The 3 May event (Brush Creek’s event 2) produced an estimated load of 3.8 x 104 kg and a sediment yield of 1.8 x 102 kg/km2. Brush Creek watershed’s estimated load for the period compared was 4.9 x 105 kg and a sediment yield of 2.3 x 103 kg/km2 (53 kg/km2/day). The 12 February event (Pitman Creek’s event 1) produced an estimated load of 2.9 x 105 kg and a sediment yield of 8.4 x 102 kg/km2. The 3 March event (Pitman Creek’s event 2) produced an estimated load of 5.7 x 105 kg and a sediment yield of 1.6 x 103 kg/km2. Pitman Creek watershed’s estimated load for the period compared was 1.1 x 106 kg and a sediment yield of 3.1 x 103 kg/km2 (71 kg/km2/day). Pitman Creek watershed’s higher number of stream network per unit area, its high elevation and relief, its high percentage of erodible soil per unit area, its lesser area of protection of erodible soil by its vegetation compared to Brush Creek watershed’s are responsible for its higher sediment load and yield.

published_or_final_version / Environmental Management / Master / Master of Science in Environmental Management

M. Tech. Water Care. / Aims determining whether inadequate treatment of wastewater and the faecal pollution load of effluents and receiving water bodies in Sedibeng District and Soshanguve peri-urban area of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality were a function of population growth. To achieve the aim of this study, the following objectives were pursued: Assess the variation in nutrient load and compliance of the physicochemical quality of effluents and receiving water bodies in terms of the South African and World Health Organization standards. Furthermore, the water quality index was also used to assess the overall physicochemical quality status of effluent and receiving water bodies. Assess the compliance of the microbial quality of effluents of the four wastewater treatment plants and their respective receiving water bodies in terms of the South African and World Health Organization limits. Determine the prevalence of Salmonella Typhimurium, Shigella dysenteriae and Vibrio cholerae in the targeted wastewater treatment works effluent and their respective receiving water bodies. Determine the possible public health risks of Escherichia coli, Salmonella Typhimurium, Shigella dysenteriae and Vibrio cholerae infections that could be acquired due to ingestion of or exposure to untreated water from the targeted receiving water bodies. Capture information regarding population growth and wastewater treatment plants in Sedibeng District and Soshanguve peri-urban area of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality and determine whether under performance of the targeted wastewater treatment works could be attributed to population growth.

published_or_final_version / abstract / toc / Civil Engineering / Doctoral / Doctor of Philosophy

Extensive data from O'ahu indicate that all streams on this island consistently exceed the USEPA standards (200 fecal coliform/100 ml, 33 enterococci/100 ml) for water quality. Soil was determined to be the source of the elevated counts of these bacteria. In tropical areas, as Hawai'i, these bacteria are able to survive and multiply in the soil. Thus, these bacteria can end up in nearby streams after heavy rains or due to erosion. As a result, the USEPA recommended indicator bacteria (fecal coliform, enterococci) cannot be used to reliably determine when waters in tropical areas are fecally contaminated. Several alternative indicators have been proposed for such areas such as C. perfringens and FRNA coliphages. Extensive monitoring data does not exist for the other islands of Hawai'i. Kaua'i differs from O'ahu in that it is older, wetter and contains an abundance of cesspools. The Nawiliwili Watershed, on the island of Kaua'i, was chosen for this study. Sampling was conducted over a period of one year, and all samples were assayed for the traditional USEPA indicators (fecal, coliform, enterococci) as well as two alternative indicators (C. perfringens, FRNA coliphages). Of the 14 sites sampled, 12 contained levels of fecal coliform and enterococci that exceeded the USEPA standards (200 fecal coliform/100 ml and 33 enterococci/100 ml. This is similar to what has been documented in O'ahu streams. Based on the concentrations of these indicator bacteria, the USEPA would deem these sites as sewage contaminated. However, monitoring of these same sites for C. perfringens indicated that there was no sewage contamination (geometric mean values fell below the proposed standard of 50 CFU/100 ml). FRNA coliphage data indicate that cesspools may be leaching into nearby streams. Two streams (Nawiliwili, Papakōlea) had geometric mean levels greater than the 50 PFU/100 ml (based on O'ahu streams). Other streams in the watershed may be sporadically contaminated by cesspool because elevated FRNA coliphage levels were detected on occasion. Genotyping these FRNA coliphage isolates furthered supported the theory that cesspools were contaminating these sites because 98% of the FRNA isolates were typed as human while only 2% were typed as of animal origin. Current USEPA standards (fecal coliform, enterococci) are not reliable indicators of sewage pollution in tropical areas, thus, alternative indicators such as C. perfringens and FRNA coliphages may prove to be better indicators in these areas.

Thesis (M. Sc.) (Hons) -- University of Western Sydney, 2003. / "A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science (Hons.), University of Western Sydney, Australia, Water Research Laboratory, Centre for Water & Environmental Technology." Includes bibliography : leaves 168 - 183 and appendices.

The introduction of instream biological monitoring to water resources management has been an increasing trend world-wide. This monitoring uses biological field assessments of instream biota such as macroinvertebrates, fish and riparian vegetation as an integrated and sensitive tool for diagnosing the condition of the ecosystems and assessing ecological impacts. Biomonitoring information has become an important component in the overall assessment of water resources and is used to drive and direct processes of decision-making and management of water resources. The River Health Programme (RHP) was initiated in South Africa to serve as a source of information regarding the ecological status of river systems, in order to support rational management of these natural resources. In this study, biomonitoring indices (SASS5 and FAII) were used to assess the present ecological status of two rivers located in contrasting catchments of the Eastern Cape. The first river is the Buffalo River located in an urban and industrialized catchment. The second river is the Inxu River draining a rural and afforested catchment. SASS5 was used successfully in both rivers and the results based on water quality and SASS5 indicated that most sites selected on the upper catchment of the Buffalo River have a fair water quality with most sites selected on the lower catchment having a poor water quality. The Inxu River sites (both upper and lower catchment) based on SASS5 and water quality results have a good to fair water quality. The majority of sites sampled on both rivers systems had very low FAII scores and fell within a critically modified water quality category. This result may be due to the fact that these rivers have low fish diversities (either low natural diversity or low diversity due to the presence of alien fish species), poor water quality or inadequate sampling methods. Observations from this study suggest that this index may not be suitable for rivers with low fish diversity. A fish index that is usable to all ecoregions of South Africa with minor adaptations to suit local conditions is still needed, as the present FAII index does not meet these requirements.

M.Sc. (Aquatic Health) / Aquatic ecosystems in rural South Africa have been impacted over many years by commercial and subsistence anthropogenic activities (DWAF, 2001). These impacts include commercial and subsistence farming, domestic use (e.g. washing of clothes, cars and bathing) and recreational use (e.g. fishing). In the northern parts of the Limpopo Province of South Africa (Vhembe District) the land use is primarily dominated by various agricultural activities and human settlements. Rivers in this region flow through mixed agricultural use, including commercial agriculture (tea and timber plantations) as well as subsistence farming and housing. Perennial rivers in this region include the Mutale, Mutshindudi and Tshinane rivers. These rivers are located in the Water Management Area 2 (WMA 2 Luvuvhu-Letaba) (Kleynhans, et al., 2007a). They are highland river systems, originating in the nearby Soutpansberg Mountain, and these rivers all form part of the larger drainage system of the Luvuvhu River, a tributary of the Limpopo River. The wetlands in the catchment of these rivers are also heavily utilised by the local communities (Working on Wetlands, 2013) used for grazing, sand mining and subsistence cultivation, thus providing a livelihood for the surrounding communities (SANBI, 2012). The aim of the study was to assess aspects of the biological integrity of the Mutale, Mutshindudi and Tshinane rivers. This study formed part of a larger study that included assessments of both abiotic and biotic aspects of these river systems. For this study, the focus was on assessing the fish community structure through the application of Fish Response Assessment Index (FRAI), riparian vegetation through the application of Vegetation Response Assessment Index (VEGRAI) and fish health aspects with special reference to liver and gonadal histopathology. Water quality parameters were found to be within the target water quality range for aquatic ecosystems. The results did however vary between upstream and downstream sampling sites. Similarly, compared to upstream sites, the FRAI showed the Mutale River to improve in fish community structure whereas the Tshinane and Mutshindudi rivers showed a decrease in the FRAI score. The VEGRAI results showed a decrease in EcoCondition in the Mutale and Mutshindudi rivers whereas the Tshinane indicated an increase. This can be attributed to land use change up to the edge of the river systems. Visual observation at the various study sites showed a definite localised impact of human activities on the beds and banks of many parts of the rivers. No histological alterations were identified in any of the gonadal or liver tissue of the Chiloglanis pretoriae (Shortspine suckermouth) (Van der Horst, 1931) and the fish were found to be in a healthy condition according to the selected parameters (gonads and livers) assessed. The fish community structure of the three rivers were found to be in a moderately to largely modified condition according to the ecological state categories calculated. However, the fish health assessment showed no histological alterations in the sampled fish. It is proposed that future studies investigate the influence of the domestic use of the rivers as well as attempt to quantify the impact of agriculture on the system.

Unsustainable patterns of consumption by humankind have increased the rate of change in the natural ecosystems and consequently the levels of stress experienced within the environment. Access to sufficient good quality water is essential and a requirement to meet a number of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). However, poor land management and untenable agricultural practices have become the main drivers of the declining watershed services. Upstream farmers often have little or no incentives to take these impacts into account in their decision-making process. Therefore, without investment in ensuring proper land management, the trend in watersheds degradation will continue. Payment for Environmental Services (PES) has emerged as an incentive–based tool that is expected to motivate farmers to improve their agricultural practices. PES is set up to facilitate the process whereby the beneficiaries of environmental services pay compensation to providers of environmental services for conserving the ecosystem. This tool has received increasing attention as a means of creating incentive measures for managing the ecosystem, addressing livelihood issues for the rural poor, and providing sustainable financing for protected areas. The Government of Kenya, as part of its efforts to improve water resource management, is considering use of economic incentive. However, there is insufficient information to guide policy making in that direction. Little is known about the farmers’ preferences for management schemes that will affect land use patterns, their willingness to accept compensation and the willingness of potential buyers to pay for the services. This study evaluates the willingness to accept and the willingness to pay for environmental services with a view to assessing the viability of a PES scheme for the Kuywa Watershed in particular, as well as the Mt. Elgon Ecosystem and other areas with similar conditions. The objectives of the study are threefold (i) to examine respondents preferences for management options for the provision of environmental services in the watershed of River Kuywa of Mt. Elgon Ecosystem; (ii) to evaluate households’ willingness to pay (WTP) and willingness to accept (WTA) payment for improved environmental services from the River Kuywa watershed; and (iii) to propose viable PES approaches for the management of the natural resource of the Kuywa watershed and the Mt. Elgon ecosystem in general. Using six land management attributes relevant to the local situation, the study applied the conjoint method to evaluate farmers’ preferences for management options for the provision of environmental service and assess farmers’ willingness to pay and willingness to accept payment for environmental services. To enable assessment of viability, an analysis was done of the institutional and legal framework within which the PES scheme would operate. Data were collected using literature review and document analysis, questionnaires, focus group discussions and key informant interviews. Results indicate that poor water quality was the most acute problem, followed by deforestation. Results from the conjoint models show that the length of commitment period and land size that is 40% or more of the total land holding influence the farmers’ rating of the management scenarios. The study found that a management contract that requires use of 20% of land holding for a period of 5 years, combined with a cash incentive, harvesting partially permitted, administered by a local NGO and requiring contribution of free labour for two days had the highest likelihood of being selected. The conjoint valuation exercise also came up with a WTA by farmers upstream of KSh. 7,080/= per year. The corresponding value downstream was KSh. 43/= per month over and above their regular water bill. In terms of the institutional and regulatory framework, Kenya has a wide range of policies, laws and regulation on water and other natural resources which provide an enabling environment for PES. With the decentralized institutional setup implemented in both the water sector and the agricultural sector, the institutional setting also provides an enabling environment for PES. With a positive WTA and WTP coupled with an enabling legal and institutional environment, the study concludes that PES is a viable environmental management tool for the Kuywa water shed and similar watersheds.

Not only in South Africa, but also all over the world, pollution is threatening the quality of water resources. More than 100,000 chemicals are produced worldwide and some of these chemicals enter into the aquatic environment, posing a potential threat to humans, animals as well as other organisms. Therefore, determining the quality of water is of great importance. The testing of the toxicity of water samples are either based on a biological model or chemical model. In the biological model, organisms are utilized as indicators for toxicity of a particular sample, this sample may then be cytotoxic to the cells of the organism. In the chemical model the amount of a specific chemical present in water samples are predicted. Although, within the biological model there are many cytotoxicity screening assays (also called bioassays) that assess quality of water, there is a need for a fast, efficient and cost-effective cell culture system that may act as first screening procedure in a range of tests. Of particular importance in the context of this thesis, are bioassays that measure specific biochemical parameters, e.g. the Uridine uptake bioassay, MTT (3-(4,5¬dimethylthiazol-2-yl-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assay and the bioluminescent assay. An important advantage of these assays are their sensitivity and the fact that the tests are principally based on cell mortality as a consequence of membrane damage or influence on cell metabolism. Researchers at the Highveld Biological Laboratory in South Africa have the past few years paid particular attention to the MTT assay, originally developed by Mosmann, and have modified this assay. In this thesis the adjusted method is referred to as the Modified Highveld Biological assay. There were, however, still a few adjustments to be made in order to use this modified method to its full potential. The Bioluminescent assay, also were thought to have potential to be modified as water quality screening test. Therefore, the hypotheses investigated in the current thesis were: • The original Mosmann MTT method can be modified successfully to provide a sensitive, reproducible mass screening method for determining chemical cytotoxicity and water quality, by using the K-562 cell line. • Sensitivity of the assay can be increased by utilizing a 3 phase medium cycle (Medium type 1-3) instead of the previously used single culture medium. • Furthermore, this cytotoxicity assay can be successfully utilized to determine whether any chemical solution or water sample is cytotoxic. Thus information was needed to determine whether cytotoxicity correlates with real life toxicity. This requires time-consuming epidemiological surveys unless results can be correlated with previous surveys. The research in this thesis attempted to indicate that the obtained cytotoxicity can be used to predict toxicity of a water sample, and that the cytotoxicity findings of this dissertation may indeed be meaningful. The culturing conditions of the Modified Highveld Biological MTT assay were modified successfully and could thus be utilized as the first assay in a battery of tests to determine overall cytotoxicity by utilising K¬652 cells in culture. Due to successful modification of the assay, this MTT assay now reduces assay duration, thereby saving important resources. An attempt was also made to optimise the Bioluminescent assay. This method is based on the fact that adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is present in all living cells. The method utilizes an enzyme, firefly luciferase, which catalyses the formation of light from ATP and luciferin. The emitted light intensity is linearly dependent on the ATP . concentration and is measured using a luminometer. The following problems were, however, identified that renders this method unsatisfactory as cytotoxicity indicator for water samples. • The luciferase enzyme is too sensitive to too many different substances used in the cell culture medium and in the preparation procedures of the cells (ions, salts etc.) which makes it less suited for usage for fast, effective testing of water toxicity. • This method will probably function better when luciferase can be carried into the cells or form part of the cells' genetic material. • We therefore suggest that, the Bioluminescent assay might possibly be a method to determine cytotoxicity, if the sensitivity of the luciferase enzyme could be further investigated. Thus it could be concluded that luminescence is not suitable for assaying complex mixtures because it is possible for unknown non~toxic agents, present in test samples, to interfere with the process of light emission (quenching). Lastly, known chemical solutions as well as unknown water samples were screened using the adjustments to the Modified Highveld Biological Method proposed in this thesis. The cytotoxicity of unknown water samples and chemical solutions were successfully determined and different cytotoxic effects were obtained, e.g. synergism, antagonism, additive effects and neutral effects. It was also possible to reduce or remove the cytotoxicity of certain water samples by applying pre~treatment with either Na2CO3 (removing possible toxic divalent and polyvalent metals) or SepPak cartridge clean up (removing organic toxicants). Results indicated that the method is very sensitive and can detect even low traces of toxicants. Thus, it can be concluded that the method was successfully adjusted to be useful as a first screening assay for toxicity analysis of a series of environmental water samples. / Dissertation (MSc (Anatomy))--University of Pretoria, 2006. / Anatomy / unrestricted