Human mast cells contain proteases that are important functional components and serve as markers of mast cell activation or degranulation. Although tryptase is the best recognized mast cell protease, chymase and Cathepsin G also are found in some human mast cells. Methods for measuring the activities of these enzymes using sensitive synthetic peptide thiobenzyl ester substrates are described in this chapter. Using a visible plate reader with kinetic software femtomole quantities of these proteases can be measured. These methods are demonstrated in assays of tryptase and chymase in cell-free extracts of the HMC-1 and 5C6 human mast cell lines, as well as in extracts of cord blood derived mast cells.

No description available.

Objective: To study the role of β1 integrins in left ventricular (LV) remodelling after myocardial infarction (MI). Methods and results: LV structural and functional alterations were determined in wild-type (WT) and β1 integrin heterozygous knockout (hKO) mice one month after MI. MI increased β1 integrin expression in both groups; however, the increase was lower in hKO. Infarct size was similar in WT and hKO mice, whereas lung wet weight to dry weight ratio was increased in the hKO-MI mice (5.17 (SE 0.13) v 4.60 (0.15) in WT-MI, p < 0.01). LV end systolic and end diastolic diameters were significantly higher and percentage fractional shortening was significantly lower in hKO-MI. The ratio of peak velocity of early LV filling (E wave) to that of the late LV filling (A wave) and the isovolumic relaxation time (IVRT) were increased in both MI groups but the increase in IVRT was significantly higher in hKO-MI group than in WT-MI mice. Langendorff perfusion analysis indicated reduced peak LV developed pressure and increased LV end diastolic pressure in both MI groups. The reduction in peak LV developed pressure (30.7 (2.2) v 53.4 (1.9) mm Hg, p < 0.05) and increase in LV end diastolic pressure was higher in hKO-MI than in WT-MI. Increase in fibrosis was not different between the two MI groups. The increase in myocyte circumference was higher in the hKO-MI group (p < 0.001 v WT-MI). The number of apoptotic myocytes was significantly higher in hKO-MI than in WT-MI mice (p < 0.005) three days after MI. The number of necrotic myocytes was not different between the two MI groups. Conclusion: β1 integrins are crucial in post-MI remodelling with effects on LV function, hypertrophy and apoptosis.

Epidemiological and clinical studies have shown that double infection with herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) and Chlamydia trachomatis occurs in vivo. We hypothesized that co-infection would alter replication of these agents. To test this hypothesis, HeLa cells were infected with C. trachomatis serovar E, followed 24 h later by HSV-2 strain 333. Transmission electron microscopic (TEM) analyses indicated that, by 10 h after HSV addition, reticulate bodies (RBs) in coinfected cells were swollen, aberrantly shaped and electron-lucent. In infectious titre assays, HSV-2 coinfection abrogated production of infectious chlamydial progeny. Western blot analyses indicated that accumulation of chlamydial major outer membrane protein (MOMP) was decreased by HSV co-infection while accumulation of chlamydial heat-shock protein 60-1 (HSP60-1) was increased. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) experiments indicated that chlamydial genome copy number was unaltered by HSV-2 superinfection. Semi-quantitative, reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR) experiments demonstrated that levels of chlamydial groEL, ftsK, ftsW, dnaA and unprocessed 16S rRNA transcripts were not changed by HSV-2 super-infection. These data indicate that HSV-2 superinfection drives chlamydia into a viable but noncultivable state, which is the hallmark of persistence. Because chlamydial HSP60-1 has been associated with immunopathology in vivo, these results also suggest that disease severity might be increased in coinfected individuals.

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C-reactive protein (CRP) is an acute phase protein produced by hepatocytes. A minor elevation in the baseline levels of serum CRP is considered an indicator of chronic inflammation. In hepatoma Hep3B cells, IL-6 induces CRP expression by activating transcription factors STAT3 and C/EBPβ. IL-1 synergistically enhances the effects of IL-6. The first 157 bp of the CRP promoter are sufficient for IL-1 synergy. Previously, NF-κB, a transcription factor activated by IL-1β in Hep3B cells, has been shown to increase endogenous CRP expression. The purpose of this study was to investigate the possible action of NF-κB on the 157 bp of the proximal promoter. In this study we show that NF-κB requires and acts synergistically with C/EBPβ on the CRP-proximal promoter to regulate CRP expression. We located the regulatory element that consisted of overlapping binding sites for NF-κB (p50-p50 and p50-p65) and OCT-1. The κB site was responsible for the synergy between NF-κB and C/EBPβ and was also necessary for the CRP transactivation by C/EBPβ through the C/EBP site. Mutation of the κB site decreased the synergistic effect of IL-1β on IL-6-induced CRP expression. Basal CRP expression increased dramatically when binding of both OCT-1 and NF-κB was abolished. Combined data from luciferase transactivation assays and EMSA lead us to conclude that the binding of OCT-1 to the promoter, facilitated by p50-p50 in a novel way, represses, whereas replacement of OCT-1 by p50-p65 induces CRP transcription in cooperation with C/EBPβ. This model for CRP expression favors the variation seen in baseline serum CRP levels in a normal healthy population.

Microsporidia are obligate intracellular opportunistic protists that infect a wide variety of animals, including humans, via environmentally resistant spores. Infection requires that spores be in close proximity to host cells so that the hollow polar tube can pierce the cell membrane and inject the spore contents into the cell cytoplasm. Like other eukaryotic microbes, microsporidia may use specific mechanisms for adherence in order to achieve target cell proximity and increase the likelihood of successful infection. Our data show that Encephalitozoon intestinalis exploits sulfated glycans such as the cell surface glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) in selection of and attachment to host cells. When exogenous sulfated glycans are used as inhibitors in spore adherence assays, E. intestinalis spore adherence is reduced by as much as 88%. However, there is no inhibition when nonsulfated glycans are used, suggesting that E. intestinalis spores utilize sulfated host cell glycans in adherence. These studies were confirmed by exposure of host cells to xylopyranoside, which limits host cell surface GAGs, and sodium chlorate, which decreases surface sulfation. Spore adherence studies with CHO mutant cell lines that are deficient in either surface GAGs or surface heparan sulfate also confirmed the necessity of sulfated glycans. Furthermore, when spore adherence is inhibited, host cell infection is reduced, indicating a direct association between spore adherence and infectivity. These data show that E. intestinalis specifically adheres to target cells by way of sulfated host cell surface GAGs and that this mechanism serves to enhance infectivity.

The II Neurotoxicity Society Meeting attracted an increase in the number of attendees over the inaugural meeting in 2003. The focus was predominately on intraneuronal mechanisms involved in neuronal necrosis and apoptosis. Also discussed were the role of astrocytes as modulators of neurodegeneration, the involvement of microglia in inflammatory events associated with neuronal apoptosis, and the possible induction of neurogenesis during the inflammatory stages of neurodegeneration. The role of neurotrophins as neuroprotectants was also discussed, as was the possibility for neuroprotection with specific neurotransmitter agonists and antagonists. As more indepth knowledge is obtained (eg, on the Wnt signaling pathway), many more potential therapeutic strategies will arise for intervening in, and slowing the progression of neurodegenerative processes. This meeting was successful in highlighting such strategies.

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No description available.