Since the release of A Nation at Risk in 1983 student performance on a variety of high stakes tests have become increasingly important in educational settings. The results of this type of assessment are quantifiable, and are intended to indicate certain levels of academic performance and achievement. Advanced Placement (AP) Exams are one example of high stakes tests. With the rapid growth of Advanced Placement (AP) courses and the corresponding popularity of the AP Exams there is a need in the research to identify specific variables that may be influential to AP Exam score performance. Course schedule type, either in the 4⨉4 block or traditional yearlong format, has been examined as a variable that influences student AP Exam score performance. In some studies the implementation of a 4⨉4 block in place of a traditional yearlong course schedule type resulted in increased AP Exam score performance, while in other studies replacement of a traditional yearlong course schedule by a 4⨉4 block course schedule type resulted in decreased AP Exam score performance. The limitations in the existing research present a need for more controlled studies using multiple years of data to further examine the relationship between clearly identified course schedule types and AP Exam score performance. In response to the need, this research performed a controlled study and examined the relationship between three specific course schedule types and AP Exam performance over time. This study analyzed sample data using participants (N=428) from a single institution in a southeastern state in the United States enrolled in the same AP course subject, taught by the same instructor, and who completed the same subject AP Exam over multiple years (2008-2012). / Ph. D.

Over half of the high schools in Virginia utilized a block schedule in 1996-97. With an extended block of time, teachers have the opportunity to vary instruction to incorporate a range of strategies to enhance student engagement and increase student achievement. The purpose of this study is to provide a detailed description of algebra instruction in an extended alternate-day block schedule. Using case study methodology, data were gathered from six algebra teachers' classrooms. Data sources included multiple classroom observations, teacher interviews, surveys, and a review of students' final algebra grades. A case record was developed for each teacher and cross-case matrices were used to analyze the degree of teacher satisfaction with the block, teacher readiness to teach algebra in the block, the types of instructional strategies utilized in algebra lessons, the level of student engagement and achievement, and advice to others. Findings indicate that teachers viewed the planning process prior to implementation of the block schedule as inadequate. Teachers have utilized strategies including cooperative learning, student projects, and problem-solving with applications. They advise other algebra teachers confronting a block schedule for the first time to engage in activities prior to implementation, including researching alternative teaching strategies, designing and planning projects for students, finding applications, redesigning homework assignments, and purchasing hands-on materials and software. Teachers are concerned about student learning, especially for ninth graders, students who are math-anxious, or students who are frequently absent. It was concluded that, although the teachers had not actively participated in the decision to change to a block schedule, they have adjusted to the new schedule. Some now enjoy the block and others continue to be dissatisfied. Although the block offers time to incorporate a range of activities, the algebra teachers typically use a familiar three-part model of instruction (including a prompt focus, explanation with modeling, and time for practice and summarization.) Homework remains an essential feature of algebra lessons and teachers routinely allow students to use graphing calculators. Students' grades in algebra have not improved; the percentage of students failing algebra has increased slightly in the alternate-day block schedule / Ed. D.

Keeping students engaged in the learning process is a challenge faced by most teachers. Instituting a bell schedule that requires them to make changes in their traditional instructional delivery may increase that challenge exponentially. The benefit of an extended period, also known as the block schedule, is that it permits the opportunity for teachers to alter their instruction with learning experiences that require more than 55 minutes by using engaging student-centered instruction. One reality of teaching on a block schedule is that many teachers lack the knowledge of effective strategies and rely on instructional devices they employed on a shorter time period. The purpose behind this work is to create a manual that demonstrates engaging student centered strategies and becomes a resource for teachers who are searching for instructional models to utilize in the block schedule. It does this in part by featuring actual hands-on strategies from three instructional models that can be readily used by classroom teachers. With the generative information about the models and activities that is provided in the manual, teachers are encouraged to create their own activities. Finally, the work provides solicited teacher feedback on the utility of the manual. / Ed. D.

The primary purpose of this research was to investigate how science teachers engaged students under the 4 x 4 block schedule and how the teachers' understanding of how they used instructional strategies influenced their lessons. As an inquiry-based approach has been adopted by the National Science Standards, research has suggested that block scheduling provides more time for teachers to incorporate varied teaching strategies such as inquiry-based teaching. This research investigated the questions: What instructional strategies do science teachers use to engage students on the 4 x 4 block schedule? How do science teachers understand their use of instructional strategies? The methodology was qualitative in nature and involved a multiple case study of three high school science teachers at a large rural county high school. Data sources included pre-observation interviews, classroom observations, post-observation interviews, and the collection of documents and artifacts such as lesson plans, student hand-outs, worksheets, laboratory exercises, homework and other document(s) the teacher used to prepare for or implement a lesson. The evidence observed in this study, suggests that the strategies used by these three science teachers remain mostly didactic in nature. Although the teachers reported in the interview phase that they use a wide variety of strategies, what was observed within the 4 x 4 block structure was the use of didactic strategies, not different strategies. Although the teachers were aware of more holistic strategies, such as inquiry-based and cooperative learning, they were not adopted nor adapted within the lesson. The three teachers used strategies that were consistent with their scientific realist views concerning the nature of science. These scientific realist philosophies are antithetical to a social constructivist approach to teaching and learning, which is what the National Research Council suggests science teachers adopt. / Ed. D.

American high schools have been criticized for failing to meet the demands of a rapidly changing society. These demands have resulted in the implementation of various educational reform measures and innovations. One innovative effort in Virginia secondary schools has been the implementation of the 4 X 4 block schedule. In this scheduling arrangement, a student would complete four courses in a semester by attending four ninety-minute classes each day. Change made in any organization is usually accompanied by problems. The purpose of this study was to determine the kinds and numbers of problems which were experienced related to implementing the 4 X 4 block schedule in Virginia secondary schools. This study also described some of the problem management strategies. In addition, the types of resources available and the relationship between the resources and the problem solutions were investigated. The study involved surveying 28 schools which implemented the 4 X 4 block schedule during the 1994-95 school year. The survey instrument was used as an initial screening device to identify two schools for case studies which demonstrated unique or revelatory cases in the implementation of the 4 X 4 block schedule. The case studies were conducted using interviews to gather in-depth information from key members of each school. The interview protocols were developed to correlate with the survey instrument. Data obtained through the interviews were analyzed. The findings indicated schools that implement the 4 X 4 block schedule will encounter varied kinds and numbers of problems unique to each school. The problems may be related to administrative, instructional, or school climate issues. The administrators at each school used their available resources and creativity to manage problems. Those problems not satisfactorily resolved remained under study. In a school where the perception existed that the school system was willing to do anything it could to help, educators were more contented and creative in solving problems. The perception of limited and withheld resources in a school contributed to squelching the persistence in solving problems. This study presented clear implications for practice. / Ed. D.

Public education has options with regard to educational settings and structures. States and school districts may select varying lengths for the school year, lengths for the school day, and lengths for individual class periods. In Utah, one measure of students' achievement is scores on the State's end-of-level criterion-referenced test (CRT) for Algebra I. Additionally, an option regarding educational structures is the schedule type used to deliver Algebra I classes. This study examined the relationship between student achievement as measured by Algebra I CRT scores, and the schedule type used to deliver Algebra I classes. The schedule types compared were the traditional daily schedule, trimester 3/3 schedule, trimester 2/3 schedule, and the block A/B schedule. This study sought to answer two research questions: (1) What is the relationship between mathematics instructional schedule type and student scores on Utah's CRT for Algebra I, for all students? and (2) What is the relationship between mathematics instructional schedule type and student scores on Utah's CRT for Algebra I, by individual grade levels? Data were obtained from the Utah State Office of Education and included the scores for 50,000 Utah students, from over 300 different schools, who took the identical Algebra I CRT at the end of the 2010-2011 school year. Data were also obtained from each school district to determine the schedule type of each participating student. Both a multinomial logistic regression analysis and a t-test analysis were conducted to determine relationships between Algebra I CRT scores and schedule types. The results indicated significant differences in student achievement based on the schedule type overall and for individual grade levels. Generally, the earlier the grade level the higher the CRT score. Within individual grade levels, there were both statistically significant and nonsignificant differences. The schedule types that generally score the highest (trimester 3/3 and traditional) had more time in the mathematics classroom and the students' mathematics class met daily. The results suggest the value of daily time spent in the mathematics classroom and may assist educators when considering options available to foster student achievement.

This study analyzes the effect of three different high school scheduling options on the delivery of biology instruction, on student achievement, and on student perceptions of their instructional activities. Participants were biology students and teachers from twelve high schools in a north Texas urban school district of 76,000. Block classes had 11 to 18 percent less instructional time than traditional classes. Texas Biology I End-of-Course Examination achievement results for 3,195 students along with student and teacher surveys provided information on instructional activities, attitudes, and individualization. Using an analysis of variance at a j i< .01 the following results were found; student achievement was significantly different for each of the scheduled comparisons groups, test score means were not statistically significant between the scheduled comparison groups for different ethnic groups, economically disadvantaged students, and magnet students. No significant differences were found between the science learning activity index for each of the scheduled groups. Student response data when disaggregrated and reaggregrated into program groups found a statistically significant higher index of science activity at a p. < .01 for magnet students when compared to both the regular and honor students. Regular program students had a significantly higher index of individualization than honors program students. Accelerated and rotating block classes were found to hold a significantly more positive attitude about their science learning conditions than did the traditional students. These data suggest that during the first two years of block scheduling, the initial impact of block scheduling, where total time for science is reduced, results in lower student achievement scores when compared to traditionally scheduled classes. Yet, block scheduled student attitudes and perceptions about science learning are significantly more positive than the traditionally scheduled students.

The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of school schedule on student achievement and attendance of ninth and tenth grade students in metropolitan area Texas high schools (n = 22) and campus dropout rates. High schools that were analyzed in this study made a transition from A/B block scheduling in the 2003-04 school year to a traditional school schedule in the 2004-05 school year. Academic achievement, attendance rates and dropout rates were gathered through the archived files of the Texas Agency through the Academic Indicator of Excellence System (AEIS). Academic achievement was measured by the Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills (TAKS) Reading/Language Arts and Mathematics standardized tests. This study compared the mean scores of ninth grader student achievement, attendance, and dropout rates from the 2003-04 school year to the mean scores of the tenth graders from the same schools from the 2004-05 school year, after the schools converted from an A/B block schedule to a traditional class schedule. Each independent variable was divided into four subgroups; campus mean results, minority student results, limited English proficient (LEP) student results, and low-socioeconomic student results. Students under the A/B block scored significantly higher in reading achievement than when they were instructed the following year under a traditional schedule. Paired sample t-tests were conducted to analyze the data for each subgroup, and showed there was a statistically significance in reading / language arts student achievement scores for all subgroups. Statistical significance was determined with a ninety five percent confidence level (p < 0.05). Statistical analysis revealed varied results in mean scores for math academic achievement and attendance rates, but no statistical significant difference. Comparison of data showed a slight increase in mean scores for dropout rates in traditional schedule, however the results were not significant.