The growing interest in South African cabaret together with the unavailability of relevant information persuaded me that this part of South African theatre life and literature is a neglected phenomena. It needs urgent attention, not only for the literary importance, but also for the social relevance. Towards this end the assistance of Hennie Aucamp, who gave me access to his entire extensive cabaret collection, was of invaluable importance. Other information was collected in Europe in 1991. Cabaret performances in different countries were attended, libraries and museums visited and television programmes viewed, all in an attempt to experience at first hand and analyse the differences and similarities. One of the conclusions was that "cabaret", "music hall", "musical", "chanson", "revue", etcetera, have a lot in common, but are definitely not the same. Many people associate cabaret with almost naked girls with fish net tights. This idea was brought about by inter alia the film Cabaret, but is not what cabaret really is about. South African cabaret, especially our literary cabaret, is based on German "Kabarett". Literary cabaret works with literary conventions and is therefore important to South African literature and theatre. We are experiencing similar political and social changes to those in Europe during the fin-de-siècle. Cabaret in South Africa is growing because of these uncertainties. For example, the Dutch cabaret artist finds himself in a position where there is social welfare and political peace - and nothing is sacred anymore. It is very difficult for him then to make a statement in a climate where everything is allowed and possible. Germany is experiencing political uncertainties and cabaret is flourishing. This tendency can also be seen in other unstable countries, also in South Africa. This proves that, for cabaret to thrive, there must be specific political and social circumstances. Cabaret is the perfect way to remind us of our original reason for living: to love, to accept one another and to live in peace. While this is not possible, there will always be something to say and statements to make.

Zugl.: Wien, Universiẗat, Diplomarbeit.

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Thesis (MDram (Drama))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Various theoretists and artists have tried to describe, to define and categorise the form of art that we roughly refer to as ‘cabaret’ in an attempt to answer the question: “What exactly is ‘cabaret’”? Many are of the opinion that cabaret cannot be defined; others feel that to define cabaret, is to limit this free-form genre, and by doing so will turn it into something it is not. This debate unavoidably leads to confusion or a misconception of what cabaret is and leads to the genre being moulded into a fixed form contrary to its nature. Since its conception in France in the late nineteenth century, cabaret has acquired many faces, and today in South Africa, many kilometres from its cradle, it is still in a process of development. For the purpose of this study I want to make use of the two basic terms used to refer to cabaret: ‘cabaret’ and ‘kabarett’. These terms refer respectively to cabaret as a form of literary entertainment or one of socio-political commentary. These categories were introduced by Kurt Tucholsky in its formatory years in Germany. By applying these terms, I want to establish whether cabaret in South Africa is alive and well, which form it has adopted, and whether one can speak of ‘pure’ cabaret. In Chapter 2 I will explore the roots of cabaret as a form of art, offer reasons for its rise and trace its development in countries such as France, Germany, the Netherlands, the USA and England. With this as background, I will in Chapter 3 attempt to indicate some guidelines for the genre without restricting it in any way, in order to explore the origin and development of what can be labelled as cabaret in South Africa in Chapter 4 and trace its development as well as evaluate current productions. Finally, I will attempt to answer the question as to whether cabaret in South Africa can be viewed as ‘cabaret’ or ‘kabarett’. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Verskeie teoretici en kunstenaars het al gepoog om die genre, kabaret, te omskryf, te definieer en in verskeie kategorieë te plaas in ’n poging om die vraag: “Wat is kabaret?” te beantwoord. Baie is van mening dat kabaret nie gedefinieer kan word nie, ander sien kabaret weer as ’n vry-veranderende genre en voel dus dat ’n definisie dit sal inperk en dwing om iets te wees wat dit nie is nie. Uiteraard veroorsaak hierdie sienswyses baie verwarring en word kabaret dan tog soms verkeerdelik omskryf en in boksies waar dit nie hoort nie, geplaas. Kabaret is ’n kunsvorm wat sedert sy vormingsjare aan die einde van die negentiende eeu in Frankryk al vele vorme aangeneem het en vandag, hier te lande, baie kilometers van sy beginpunt af, steeds aan die ontwikkel is. Ek wil dus in hierdie studie gebruik maak van die twee eenvoudigste terme waarmee daar na kabaret verwys word: ‘cabaret’ en ‘kabarett’. Hierdie terme verwys onderskeidelik na kabaret enersyds as ‘n literêre vorm van vermaak of, andersyds, as ‘n medium vir die lewering van sosio-politiese kommentaar. Hierdie kategorieë is deur Kurt Tucholsky gebruik om die verskillende vorms van kabaret te omskryf reeds in die vroeë vormingsjare daarvan as kunsvorm in Duitsland. Só wil ek poog om vas te stel of kabaret wel in Suid-Afrika ‘lewend’ is, watter vorm dit aanneem en hoe suiwer dit is. In Hoofstuk 2 ondersoek ek die wortels van kabaret en probeer ek vasstel hoe die kunsvorm sedert sy ontstaan ontwikkel het in Frankryk, Duitsland, Nederland, Amerika en Engeland. Met die kennis van waar kabaret vandaan kom, hoekom dit ontstaan het en wat die vorme is wat dit al aangeneem het as agtergrond, poog ek dan in Hoofstuk 3 om min of meer riglyne aan die genre te gee, sonder om dit in te perk, ten einde my bespreking in Hoofstuk 4 te kan voltooi waarin ek kyk na die geskiedenis van kabaret in Suid-Afrika, asook die ontwikkeling daarvan tot en met die aanbieding van produksies waarna ons vandag as ‘kabaret’ verwys. Ten slotte wil ek bepaal of dit wat ons in Suid-Afrika ‘kabaret’ noem, in der waarheid kabarett of cabaret is.

Thesis advisor: John H. Houchin / Cabaret, a socially-amalgamated art form, has worn many hats over the course of its often outspoken history. Evidences of this fascinating and crucial European institution date as far back as the thirteenth century and have since been used to categorize any number of venues showcasing acts of critical prowess and refined talent. By contemporary standards, the term ‘cabaret’ applies to “places of entertainment like night clubs that offer a wide variety of showmanship, food and drink, and often dancing both on stage and on the floor.” However, back at the turn of the twentieth century, when it finally materialized as a recognized form of artistic and social activity, cabaret carried a very strict and idealistic agenda. Whatever the precedents or forbearers of cabaret, the fact is that cabaret, as a distinct cultural phenomenon, had an articulate, recent, and undoubtedly relevant chronology – one that flourished for about half a century between the opening of the first and most famous cabaret in 1881 in Paris, and the political crises of Europe in the 1930s that curtailed the freedoms of thought, expression and experiment that characterizes cabaret in its most potent form. In regards to such impertinent critiques of society – which the arts are hardly foreign – the significance of cabaret, as a catalytic point of artistic convergence as well as a port for mounting populist opinion, holds particular resonance not only in historical contexts, but in modern circumstance as well. Despite the innumerous adaptations, the regional and period variations cabaret has spawned over the years; besides the evolving (albeit vague) definitions of what cabaret was at any given time, cabaret, as an art form, retains many of the inherent intents and purposes that date back to its avant-garde birth. Arguably then, cabaret, a veritable social platform for criticism, holds palpable merit for contemporary artists and the societies they represent, considering cabaret has and perpetually will serve as a synthesizing mechanism to bridge not only the popular art mediums of the day, but the social classes as well. Through research and example, I have isolated the characteristics and social forces behind cabaret that distinguish it from other performance genres in hopes to identify the current potential cabaret poses on an ever-evolving global culture. / Thesis (BA) — Boston College, 2005. / Submitted to: Boston College. College of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: College Honors Program.

Cabaret is one of America's most unusual forms of art and entertainment as it juxtaposes and creatively interconnects comedy, song, dance, theatre, speech, and performance art, much like that of its bigger sister, American musical theatre. Many elements of the American musical are shared by cabaret, however, cabaret is unique since it generally occurs in more intimate (and sometimes more unusual) performance venues, such as restaurants, nightclubs, lobbies, halls, small theatres and private homes. With close proximity to the performer(s), cabaret audiences are often seated at tables where they eat and/or drink while an interlocutor (an interactive Emcee, M.C. or Master of Ceremonies) guides them through the performance. Along with the creative and engaging interaction of an interlocutor, the intimate venue of a cabaret performance creates a forum that allows and encourages the performers' energy to combine with the audience's as the "theatrical fourth wall" is constantly broken through. The synergistic energy generated by audience and performers creates an entirely new and unique performance phenomena, which is one of the most exciting, appealing and exceptionally unique qualities of cabaret. Since a small body of scholarship exists on American cabaret as a unique genre, this study provides a thorough analysis and detailed dissection of cabaret both historically and musically. Discussed first is cabaret's origins, life and development by way of a historical narrative gleaned from existing resources on cabaret. Also tied into this narrative is information on other types of performance and music closely related to cabaret, such as Victorian music halls, concert saloons, dance halls, speakeasies, nightclubs and supper clubs, burlesque, vaudeville, and Tin Pan Alley. Next, this essay identifies and explores the "physical" elements that compose cabaret such as the framework of songs, the connective fabric of interlocking dialogue, songs, and musical numbers, the final look of the performance and the overall sound-blend of the performance. The essay progresses into a more detailed exploration of cabaret by identifying and discussing its "visceral" elements such as basic human nature and intimate contact via the human voice. Likewise, musical examples are presented that illustrate musical elements such as the "composer's hook," elicitation of body movement, patter songs and types of accompaniments supportive of the melody. Finally, musical patterns are presented that are analogous to motion, conflict, resolution and circular arcs of context such as syncopated patterns, dotted rhythms, swinging eighth notes, tied-note figures over bar lines, "chromatic toggling" and repeated-against-syncopated patterns. Consequently, all these musical elements in cabaret literature prompt human beings into movement in all three areas of body, mind and spirit. This essay then identifies and delineates several possible types and combinations of cabaret shows, such as formal, improvisational, musical revue, vaudeville-style, stand-up comedy, karaoke, female/male impersonator (drag show), "streetmosphere," flash mob, piano bar/lounge, open-mic., concert-style, aleatory and a mixture of any and all types. Finally, the most important contribution to cabaret scholarship is this essay's comprehensive resource on how to create and develop a cabaret show with specific suggestions for themes, music, underscoring, and scripted dialogue. In addition, this essay presents an example of an entire original cabaret show in order to clarify the findings of this study, and encourage further research, creation and composition, practice and prolongation of the genre of American cabaret.

Friedrich Hollaender (1896-1976) was one of the most prolific composers of cabaret song literature in Berlin between 1918 and 1933. Beginning with his work at the literary-political cabarets of the early 1920s, including Max Reinhardt’s Schall und Rauch, Trude Hesterburg’s Wilde Bühne, and Rosa Valetti’s Café Größenwahn and continuing through the cabaret revues presented at Hollaender’s own Tingel-Tangel-Theater in the early 1930s, Hollaender wrote over 200 cabaret songs. A classically trained composer who studied with Engelbert Humperdinck, Hollaender ultimately found his niche in creating cabaret songs that clearly evoked the mood and environment expressed in the texts he set. In this way, Hollaender elevated and expanded the expressive power of music in the cabaret. At the same time, Hollaender did not revolutionize the cabaret song. Instead, he worked within the traditional framework of the cabaret song, adapting his compositional style to fit the expectations of the genre. Cabaret songs privilege the clear expression and declamation of the text. Thus, most cabaret songs exhibit a simple musical framework. Performers often spoke or intoned the text rather than singing the melody, and as a result, cabaret songs often double the melodic line in the accompaniment so that it can be heard and recognized during the performance. This practice differs markedly from art song, in which the melody and accompaniment serve as equal partners in expressing the text as a unified musical work and the singer is expected to sing the melody provided by the composer. Much of Hollaender’s work in the cabaret involved an effort to infuse the cabaret song with the expressive musical force of the art song without altering the traditional performance practice, the freedom to intone the text typical of the cabaret, and the simplified harmony and formal structure of cabaret songs. Hollaender’s ability to immediately capture the essence of the song texts in music is what ultimately made him successful. He also demonstrated an ability to adapt to the swiftly evolving tastes and expectations of cabaret audiences during the tumultuous Weimar Era. His adherence to a philosophy of music for the cabaret that would “explode in a lightning flash” and create a mood that would be “present in the first beats,“ along with his flexibility in responding to the evolving taste of the public allowed Hollaender to enjoy a sustained, successful career in the cabaret. His enormous output of cabaret songs is a testament to his effectiveness and success as a composer, writer, and producer in Berlin cabaret theatres. The purpose of the study is to understand how Hollaender’s work elevated the expressive force of the musical settings for cabaret songs through the analysis of the text and the music of his cabaret songs. This study explores representative examples of Hollaender’s cabaret songs composed for Berlin theaters between 1919-1933. The songs were primarily selected to demonstrate the wide variety of musical expression Hollaender was able to achieve in his song settings within the confines of traditional cabaret song forms, particularly the couplet and the role chanson. A wide variety of subject matter is covered in these cabaret song settings, from political and social satire to adapted folktales, and from playful character pieces to defiant antimilitarist statements and poignant illustrations of poverty and hardship. In addition, the cabaret songs included in the study emerge from significant collaborative relationships the composer developed, most notably his early collaborations in literary-political cabaret theaters with satirist and poet Kurt Tucholsky, Dada author Walter Mehring, and performer and first wife Blandine Ebinger. Finally, songs were chosen from throughout the time Hollaender composed music for the cabaret in order to demonstrate the changing landscape of the cabaret as time progressed. As a result, a significant number of songs in the study emerge from Hollaender’s late cabaret revues, programs of songs, skits and other acts loosely organized around a theme or idea, for which the composer wrote both the text and the music. Because the cabaret by its nature offered commentary on contemporary society, the study includes examples that demonstrate the evolving political and social climate in Germany as expressed in the cabaret song texts. For instance, Hollaender’s cabaret songs written in collaboration with Kurt Tucholsky in 1919-1920 frequently criticize Gustav Noske and the use of paramilitary Freikorps to quell dissent in the fledgling Weimar Republic. By the time of Hollaender’s 1931 cabaret revue Spuk in der Villa Stern, however, Hollaender’s political satire criticizes and lampoons National Socialist rhetoric and caricatures Adolf Hitler. Finally, the songs included in the discussion were also chosen in part due to the availability of musical scores, texts, and recordings. Whenever possible, recordings of the original performers, including Blandine Ebinger, Paul Graetz, and Claire Waldoff were consulted in order to understand performance practices used in Berlin cabarets during the Weimar era. Recordings of modern performers, chiefly Ute Lemper, Tim Fischer, and Jody Karen Applebaum were also explored. Many of the original performers were actors rather than singers, and their style of interpreting their songs with a mixture of spoken declamation and singing demonstrates the importance of clearly expressing the text and its emotional content and creating a complete characterization in the presentation of the song. This style of performing did not diminish Hollaender’s contribution as a composer, but rather created a multilayered hybrid of speech, melody, harmony and rhythm that set for many the standard for excellence in the Weimar era cabaret song. Literal English translations of the songs presented for the study were developed in order to facilitate the discussion of how Hollaender’s music specifically evokes the mood and expression of the text. In addition, the study includes explanations and annotations of the events, historical figures, and cultural icons that are peppered throughout these texts. Because cabaret songs are by their nature a product of the contemporary society out of which they emerge, a basic understanding of the time period is essential to fully comprehend these works. Hollaender’s cabaret songs often employ a Berlin dialect, use colloquial expressions, and assume an understanding of contemporary society in the 1920s that is no longer common knowledge nearly a century later. As a result, the detailed study and translation of the texts were essential to understanding Hollaender’s cabaret song settings. This investigation demonstrates how Hollaender evoked a variety of specific moods and ideas in his cabaret song settings through an economy of musical means. Although his music adhered to the conventions and traditions of the cabaret song by employing simple harmonic structures and an almost exclusive use of verse-refrain song form, the composer effectively used dissonance, rhythmic motives, chromaticism, mode-mixture, melodic shape, and other compositional techniques to great expressive effect that clearly reflected the wide variety of environments and moods described in his texts. The result is that the text and music are wedded in Hollaender’s cabaret song settings in such a way that they become a unified expressive art form.

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