Thesis (B.A.Hons.) from the Depts. of French and German, University of Adelaide.

Diss.--Literaturwissenschaft--Zürich, 1980. / Bibliogr. p. 107.

DEA--Alger, 1981.

Thesis (doctoral)--Université de Paris IV, 1975. / Includes bibliographical references (p. 399-406).

This thesis is an attempt to trace the age-old theme of man's relationship with the physical universe in the works of one writer: Albert Camus. In his early works, Camus was preoccupied with this theme. From 1941 on, however, he increasingly neglected it in favour of social, political and philosophical topics. Perhaps, this is why any criticism of his works tends to centre on the man-nature theme in his writings before 1941, and then to completely drop this subject and dwell on the social, political and philosophical aspects of his later works. The man-nature theme, however, is present throughout Camus' works; in only a few is it neglected completely. Moreover, it was found that Camus' treatment of the theme formed a pattern of four chronological periods. During the first years of his literary career until 1941, Camus dwells on man's deep sensitivity to nature and the sense of "oneness" he feels with the physical universe. L'Envers et l'endroit and Noces were Camus' first youthful and ingenuous efforts to express his sense of communion with nature and the beliefs he finds as a result of this communion. In L'Etranger, Camus' first published work of fiction, man is no longer free in his association with nature, but controlled by it. "Le Minotaure", a description of Oran and its inhabitants, suggests that man has a choice of life close to nature and happiness or a life away from nature which brings sterility and boredom. In 1941 comes a distinct and decisive change in Camus' attitude to the man-nature theme. The essay "Les Amandiers" announces this change; in it nature is reduced to a mere symbol of "the good"; man is no longer portrayed enjoying the beauties of nature. Indeed, the works of this second period — the longest and richest in literary output — depict man in exile from the nature he adores; exiled because of the "absurd" as in Caligula; because of circumstances of birth and lack of money as in Le Malentendu and because of plague (or war) as in La Peste. Yet, in all these works, nature is present as a memory or a desire. "L'Exil d'Hélène" closes this period with a bitter criticism by the author of a world that has forsaken nature and its joys. For a brief interval in 1952-1953, Camus' writings reflect a deep desire to recapture his youthful experience of nature in Algeria and Italy. During this period, he describes his renewed relationship with nature in the essays: "Retour à Tipasa" and "La Mer au plus près". Neither essay, however, contains the freshness and enthusiasm of the first period. After 1953, Camus' characters lose themselves once again in a world that is out of touch with nature. La Chute describes the exile of all men and La Femme adultère, the communion of man with nature, but with a nature that is sterile and death-like. / Arts, Faculty of / French, Hispanic, and Italian Studies, Department of / Graduate

Pour Albert Camus le problème dominant du XXe siècle est de savoir, "si l'homme sans le secours de l'éternel ou de la pensée rationaliste peut créer à lui seul ses propres valeurs". Peut-il trouver un sens de la vie en dehors du divin? C'est là une question essentiellement religieuse à laquelle Camus cherche une reponse dans toutes ses oeuvres. Le but de la présente thèse est d'étudier le rôle que le christianisme joue dans cette recherche. Cet aspect de son ceuvre n'ayant guere attire l'attention des critiques, il faut chercher dans les oeuvres mêmes de l'auteur les temoignages de l'influence chrétienne sur sa pensée. Le premier chapitre de l'étude discute les dissemblances entre le christianisme et la pensée de Camus. Chez lui tout est a la mésure de l'homme tandis que chez le chrétien tout depend de Dieu. C'est là la dissemblance capitale de laquelle dérivent toutes les autres. Camus se sert souvent de termes théologiques tels que "salut" et "jugement", mais pour lui ceux-ci dépendent des hommes et se réalisent sur cette terre. II croit que tous sont à la fois coupables et innocents, idée contraire à la doctrine chrétienne du péché originel. II affirme d'ailleurs, que la mort est "une porte fermée". II va meme plus loin et considere la croyance à l'immortalité comme une tricherie qui peut empêcher I'homme de remplir sa tâche ici-bas. Puisqu'un au-délà n'existe pas, la vie du présent est précieuse et on ne doit pas fuir ses responsabilités. La force qui soutient et inspire Camus, c'est la beauté qu'il conçoit paienne au sens grec. Son idée du corps est également grecque et il se rejouit qu'apres tant de siècles on voit de nouveau les corps nus sur les plages. Enfin pour lui la terre est le royaume de I'homme, et non de Dieu, et c'est a I'homme qu'il rend hommage. Viennent ensuite les objections précises que Camus fait au christianisme. Le problème du mal est la pierre d'achoppement à la croyance en Dieu car Camus y trouve ce paradoxe insoluble: Dieu tout-puissant permettant la souffrance des innocents, ou Dieu, bon mais impuissant, ne pouvant rien contre ce scandale. II critique le christianisme, hypocrite, totalitaire, inefficace contre le mal, et il y voit une évasion hors du monde actuel. En outre il condamne les faiblesses de l'Eglise, qui se range souvent du côté des oppresseurs, et qui selon Camus a trahi sa mission médiatrice. Elle a preféré aussi la mystification à la lumière qu'il estime tant. Tout en reconnaissant ses objections au christianisme, le troisième chapitre de cet essai souligne les ressemblances nombreuses entre la pensée de cet auteur et la pensée chrétienne. Pour Camus, comme pour le chrétien, la lutte pour améliorer la souffrance des hommes, pour établir un meilleur monde est une obligation majeure. Lui aussi, reconnaît le besoin de valeurs, et celles qu'il mentionne, l'honnêteté, la justice, la liberté, la loyauté, l'honneur, la compassion, sont celles prêchées par le Christ. Mais on doit noter que Camus en trouve la source dans la révolte, tandis que le christianisme la trouve dans la Bible. Comme le christianisme Camus rejette l'idée de nihilisme, même au point d'espérer une renaissance en Europe. De plus il affirme qu'on ne doit jamais ajouter au mal du monde ou se ranger du côté des bourreaux, idées que partage le christianisme. Le dernier chapitre discute les images religieuses et chrétiennes dont Camus se sert librement dans ses Scrits, en faisant allusion aux rites de l'Eglise comme la messe, le confession et l'absolution, démontrant sa connaissance de la Bible, d'où il tire beaucoup de citations et de références. Toute son oeuvre est imprégnée d'allusions au Christ, surtout à ses souffrances et à son sacrifices. Beaucoup de ses personnages sont à l'image du Christ, tout au moins par certain aspects de leur caractère. En conclusion on remarque que malgré l'incroyance de l'auteur et sa critique tranchante des faiblesses de l'Eglise, une influence chrétienne se manifeste dans les oeuvres d'Albert Camus, et on se rend compte que cette influence est plus grande dans les dernières oeuvres que dans les premières. Enfin tous les écrits de Camus mettent en lumière l'idée exprimée par Jean-Baptiste Clamence: "...pas chrétien pour un sou, bien que j'aie de l'amitié pour le premier entre eux." / Arts, Faculty of / Central Eastern Northern European Studies, Department of / Graduate

Dualism characterizes the work of Albert Camus. The young Mediterranean, who was fortunate enough to have a sense of communion with the glorious nature of his native Algeria, also suffered from one of its inherent maladies--poverty. He noticed also that his companions had no religious feelings; they burned themselves out in a great burst of joyous physical existence on the beaches rather than preoccupy themselves with thoughts of life after death. They, and Camus in his turn, put all the emphasis on the life here and now because they felt that the after-life was merely a hypothesis. Thus, at a very young age, Albert Camus became aware of the event which would give life a new, intensified meaning; he saw death as the inevitable end of this life which he loved. The dualism exists, therefore, between this attempt to find happiness and the realization that this attempt is doomed from the beginning by an indifferent and incoherent world which can at any moment snuff out life. This latter reasoning is that of the Absurd. From this dualism is born a new position—revolt. Camus revolts against everything that depreciates the value of life, whether bourgeois conformism and complacency or communist terror and torture. This negative revolt is always balanced by an emphasis on the positive elements of life--happiness, love, fraternity, beauty. There are, therefore, three main themes in the work of Albert Camus--happiness, the Absurd, revolt. They coexist throughout the entire length of his writings. Together they evolve and mature. The theme of happiness begins by the attempt to find a personal, physical happiness. Examples are Noces, L'Etranger, and many of the female characters of Camus. The second type of happiness is found in La Peste, L'Homme révolté, and one story from L'Exil et le Royaume. It is the desire for the collective happiness of a group. Thirdly, there is a transcendant happiness whose object is some abstract concept. Jean Tarrou of La Peste and the heroes of Les Justes are the major examples. Finally, there is a group of characters whose attempts at happiness fail because they reject human warmth in favour of their ideals. They are Caligula, Martha and Jan of Le Malentendu, Clamence of La Chute, and the Renegade of L'Exil et le Royaume. In any case, true happiness must be tempered by the realization that men must die. The importance of this lucidity runs as a subtheme under that of happiness. The Absurd, too, evolves. Its earliest literary manifestations are characterized by the emphasis on natural causes of death and misunderstanding— the plague, the will of the gods, destiny. It is, therefore, called a metaphysical absurd and examples are taken from Le Malentendu and Le Mythe de Sisyphe. A second form of the Absurd is caused by men themselves, their wars, and ideological cold wars. This is a social absurdity discussed in La Peste, L'Homme révolté, L'Etat de Siège, L'Eté, La Chute, Discours de Suède, and Les Justes. A derivative of this type of the Absurd is the absurdity of the robotlike life led by modern man. L'Etranger is the most striking example, but Le Mythe de Sisyphe and a story from L'Exil et le Royaume continue this theme. Revolt has two stages which correspond with those of the Absurd. The first feeling of revolt is a metaphysical rebellion against God, the world, or destiny which force men to die. Its examples are Noces, L'Etranger, Le Mythe de Sisyphe, Caligula, Le Malentendu, and several characters from La Peste. The second rebellion is social in that it reacts against totalitarianism, murder, and falsehood. It is found in the person of Jean Tarrou in La Peste, L’Homme révolté, L'Etat de Siège, Les Justes, La Chute, and L'Eté. One of the most important characteristics of revolt is moderation. Man has the right to revolt against his oppressor, but not to legitimize murder to gain his end. If this tactic should be necessary, he must sacrifice his own life in order to absolve himself of his crime. Finally, Camus' thought is characterized by a sort of humanism because of his incessant emphasis on the value of human life. La Chute, as an ironic work, is the example. In it Camas criticizes Christians, Communists, and existentialists alike for their lack of moderation and their lack of faith in man. Camus' position during the Algerian revolt also proves his concern for moderation. The result of this moderate revolt will hopefully be happiness. It is on this note that the cycle of Camus' work is completed. / Arts, Faculty of / French, Hispanic, and Italian Studies, Department of / Graduate

This thesis proposes that love, in Camus' writings, undergoes an evolution of considerable importance. In the early works of Camus appear numerous kinds of love, each containing, to a certain degree, an element of egotism. Among these are filial love, love of nature, and romantic love. All of these tend to undergo a parallel evolution, however, each one moving to a higher plane where, eventually, they all converge at one meeting-point. This meeting-point is simply another kind of love, but a purer form, free of any narcissistic traits. In order to comprehend fully the scope of this evolution, it is essential to examine all of Camus' writings, including his journalism, theatre, essays, and stories. Those factors which influenced, either directly or indirectly, his attitudes towards love must also be considered. The most important of these are his family, the Algerian milieu where he grew up, his participation in the underground newspaper Combat during World War II, and the chaotic political situation in the world during the 1940's. Central also to this study are Camus' attitudes towards art and his conception of the artist's role. These attitudes are made quite explicit in his Discours de Suède, which he presented upon acceptance of the Nobel Prize in 1957. According to Camus, the artist is the spokesman for the oppressed. Through his writings he must endeavor to unite all men by opposing all that tends to separate them. By denouncing injustice, and condemning tyrannies and dictatorships, he affirms his solidarity with all mankind. During the war, which exercised a strong effect on the evolution of love in Camus’ work, these ideas are put into effect as he begins to write for Combat. Aware of the atrocities committed daily, and of the terrifying cruelties imposed upon millions of human beings, he adopts an entirely new outlook toward his fellow man. No longer is revolt an individual effort for Camus, but rather an experience shared by many. Revolt now becomes a means of unifying men, not of separating them. As Camus becomes more and more concerned with the theme of revolt, egotism gradually disappears in his heroes. Love of nature also ceases to have any real importance in Camus' work as he devotes himself to mankind. Refusing to turn his back to the difficulties of his times, he exiles himself from the land of his youth, where he was once in harmony with the universe. Filial love, associated with this land of innocence and happiness, tends to disappear also, as his characters, like Doctor Rieux in La Peste, put aside their personal interests in order to help other men. And, finally, romantic love is condemned to failure, for the heroes of La Peste, L'Etat de Siège, and Les Justes, all consider their duty to mankind to be of greater consequence. Although a universal love is the final development in the evolution of Camusian love, a conflict between this love and a narcissistic longing for solitude echoes throughout his literature. This conflict, never resolved, appears in L'Envers et l'Endrolt, La Chute, and "Jonas ou l'artiste au travail." Unlike Clamence who, to solve this conflict, becomes a hypocrite, or Jonas who goes mad, Camus submerges his egotistical longings and devotes himself to humanity. His sense of solidarity is much stronger than his concern for self. Throughout Camus' writings, then, can be seen an evolution In which he seeks to purify his love, by freeing it of any egotistical traits, and enlarging it so as to embrace all mankind. In the words of Albert Camus are the professions of one of the great humanists of the twentieth century. / Arts, Faculty of / French, Hispanic, and Italian Studies, Department of / Graduate

The aim of this study is to examine the ideas of Albert Camus on social injustice as he sets them forth in his four Plays, Caligula, Le Malentendu, L'État de Siège and Les Justes. The term "social injustice" we have interpreted in its widest sense, as applying to every aspect of human relations. We have made the analysis under two main headings, the injustice that confronts man, and the reaction of man in the face of this injustice, considering each side of the problem on three levels, political, psychological and metaphysical. The awareness of injustice came early to Camus in his own youthful experience. His desire and search for justice is evident then in his earliest writings, inspired by a revolt against the absurdity of man's fate. At the same time, however, he reveals a sensitivity to the beauty of the world and a joy in being alive, that influence his thought and attitudes at all times. One constant source of happiness and satisfaction for Camus was the theatre which, from his school days until his death, he enjoyed as actor, producer and dramatic writer of many adaptations as well as the four original plays. As the theme of injustice leads inevitably to conflict, it is natural that Camus should have chosen the theatre in which to work out his ideas and involve the spectator in the reactions of his characters on the stage. In the first section, the injustice that confronts man, Chapter one deals with the political level. We focus our attention on the political injustice that oppresses the people ruled with absolute power by a ruthless emperor in Caligula, by a totalitarian regime in L 'État de Siège and by the tyranny of the Russian Czars in Les Justes. In this last play we note too the dangers of tyranny in an authoritarian political group organized to combat by violent means the despotic government of the country. In the dialogue of the play and the attitudes of the characters we discern the thinking of Camus. In Chapter two we consider at the psychological level the effects of living under these inherently unjust rulers, the injustices of fear, hate, humiliation, despair and so on which afflict the victims. We see this in the same three plays as above. These injustices exist also to oppress the characters of Le Malentendu. Here, however, they result from the hardships of climate, poverty and family inadequacy. In Chapter three we deal with injustice at the metaphysical level, the absurdity of human life dominated by suffering and death. That concept immediately poses the question of the value of life, the happiness, love, beauty and freedom that man craves. These two aspects are evident i n the c o n f l i c t of all four plays. In Part Two, man confronted by injustice, we come to the reaction of the victims of injustice at the three levels, the revolt or acceptance on the part of the characters involved, the destructive or positive approach towards the elimination of social ills. Here we can mark out certain great rebels who aim to destroy evil and on the other hand certain great champions of liberty who work to create justice and happiness. From this we endeavour to indicate Camus' point of view on methods of revolt. In Chapter one of this section, devoted to man's re-actions to injustice, it is again the political level that concerns us. Here the great question is the justification or condemnation of violence, especially as seen in Caligula and Les Justes. Chapter two, the psychological level, leads us to personal feelings and motives, whether hate, fear and humiliation or courage, brotherhood and dignity. In all four plays we note the inner conflict produced by the impact of injustice on the human personality. We observe through his characters the importance Camus places upon love and responsibility to mankind in man's struggle to achieve satisfaction in life. In Chapter three, the metaphysical level, we analyze man's behaviour in the face of the absurdity of his human existence, his revolt, his efforts to overcome the limitations and cruelty of his destiny and to create by his own efforts a tolerable degree of justice and happiness. In Caligula and Le Malentendu we have the negative approach which succombs finally to despair. In L'État de Siège also we have the nihilist Nada. However, both in this play and in Les Justes we find a vindication of man's sense of the value of life to be achieved in liberty and happiness. In conclusion we indicate the evolution of Camus' views from the pessimism of the idea of the absurd to the humanism of seeking to fulfil man's destiny in dignity and beauty. In his condemnation of violence and his assertion of the power of brotherhood to build a world of order, justice and freedom, Camus has much to offer the world of today, menaced by dissension, war and total destruction. We find that his plays continue to attract audiences of concerned people, especially the young generation seeking a path to human dignity and fulfilment. / Arts, Faculty of / French, Hispanic, and Italian Studies, Department of / Graduate

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